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Nineteenth century and after : a history year by year from A.D. 1800 to the present (vol. 2)/ by Edwin Emerson, Jr. and Marion Mills Miller ; illustrated with eight colored plates and sixteen full-page engravings and two maps.

Nineteenth century and after : a history year by year from A.D. 1800 to the present (vol. 2)/ by Edwin Emerson, Jr. and Marion Mills Miller ; illustrated with eight colored plates and sixteen full-page engravings and two maps. Emerson, Edwin, 1869- 400dpi TIFF G4 page images University of Kentucky, Electronic Information Access & Management Center Lexington, Kentucky 2002 b92-202-30752302v2 Electronic reproduction. 2002. (Beyond the shelf, serving historic Kentuckiana through virtual access (IMLS LG-03-02-0012-02) ; These pages may be freely searched and displayed. Permission must be received for subsequent distribution in print or electronically. Nineteenth century and after : a history year by year from A.D. 1800 to the present (vol. 2)/ by Edwin Emerson, Jr. and Marion Mills Miller ; illustrated with eight colored plates and sixteen full-page engravings and two maps. Emerson, Edwin, 1869- P.F. Collier, New York : c1906. 3 v. : ill. ; 21 cm. Coleman Paged continuously. Includes index. Microfilm. v. 1-3. Atlanta, Ga. : SOLINET, 1994. 1 microfilm reel ; 35 mm. (SOLINET/ASERL Cooperative Microfilming Project (NEH PS-20317) ; SOL MN04500.04 KUK) Printing Master B92-202. IMLS This electronic text file was created by Optical Character Recognition (OCR). No corrections have been made to the OCR-ed text and no editing has been done to the content of the original document. Encoding has been done through an automated process using the recommendations for Level 1 of the TEI in Libraries Guidelines. Digital page images are linked to the text file. History, Modern 19th century.Miller, Marion Mills. C4 :E w E- (4 0 x C. w cte Dtineteenti (Genturp anb fter A HISTORY YEAR BY YEAR FROM A. D. 1800 TO THE PRESENT By EDWIN EMERSON, jR. Member of the American Historical Association, New York Historical Society, the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, etc. and MARION MILLS MILLER Litt.D. (Princeton) ILLUSTRATED WITH EIGHT COLORED PLATES AND SIXTEEN FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS AND TWO MAPS IN THREE VOL UAES VOLUME TWO 1 8 2 2-1 8 6 0 P. F. COLLIER SON, PUBLISHERS NEW YORK It - --I - COPYRIGHT 1906 By P. F. COLLIER SON CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO PAGN EVENTS OF 1822 ............................................... 433 EVENTS OF 1823 ............................................... 444 EVENTS OF 1824 ............................................... 450 EVENTS OF 1825.. . . ........... ....... 456 EVENTS OF 1826. 467 EVENTS OF 1827 .474 EVENTS OF 1828 .483 EVENTS OF 1829 .492 EVENTS OF 1830 .500 EVENTS OF 1831 ...............................................5 12 EVENTS OF 1832............ 524 EVENTS OF 1833............. 536 EVENTS OF 1834............ 542 EVENTS OF 1835............ 551 EVENTS OF 1836............ 556 EVENTS OF 1837 .566 EVENTS OF 1838 .574 EVENTS OF 1839 .579 EVENTS OF 1840 .588 EVENTS OF 1841. 98 EVENTS OF 1842 .609 EVENTS OF 1843 .620 EVENTS OF 1844 .627 EVENTS OF 1845 .635 EVENTS OF 1846 .641 EVENTS OF 1847 .653 EVENTS OF 1848 .668 XiXth Cenrun--Vol. Il-1 CONTENTS OF VOLUME TWO P.QE EVENTS OF 1849 ............................................... 709 EVENTS OF 1850............ 724 EVENTS OF 1851. 734 EVENTS OF 1852 ............................................. . 743 EVENTS OF 1853. 753 EVENTS OF 1854 ............................................... 764 EVENTS OF 1855 ............................... ............. 777 EVENTS OF 1856 ............ .................................. 788 EVENTS OF 1857 ............................................... 797 EVENTS OF 1858 ... ......................................... 814 EVENTS OF 1859 ............................................... 822 EVENTS OF 1860 ............................................ 840 ILLUSTRATIONS OF VOLUME TWO THE FIRST STEAMi RAILWAY .......... ................... Frontispiece Reproduced in Color from a Painting by Edward L. Henry. LORD BiRoN............................ Facing Page 450 Reproduced in Black and White from a Painting by Maurin. BEETHOVEN AND His ADMIRERS ........................... 474 Reproduced in Black and White from a Painting by A. Grafle. QUEEN VICTORIA TAKING THE OATH ............................ 570 Reproduced in Black and White from a Painting by Sir George Hayter. AMERICAN INVENTORS. .......... .............................. 642 Reproduced in Black and White from a Painting by C. Schussele. WAGNER AND LISZT............................................ 738 Reproduced in Black and White from a Painting by W. Beck- mann. THE BATTLE OF INKERMANN .............................. 786 Reproduced in Black and White from a Painting by Gustave Dor4. SOLFERINO ............... 834 Reproduced in Color from a Painting by E. Meissonier. in This page in the original text is blank. EVENTS OF 1822 Greece Declares Independence Chios Rebels-Turks Massacre and En- slave Inhabitants-Kanaris Burns and Scatters Turkish Fleet with Fire-Ship-Turks Drive Greeks Back to Missolonghi-Greek Moun- taineers Shut Invaders Up in Corinth-Capodistrias Resigns Owing to Czar's Indifference to Greece-Canning Returns to Power -Espouses Cause of Greece and South American Republics-Itur- bide Makes Himself Emperor of Mexico-Sucre Defeats Spanish at Pichincha-San Martin Gives a Free Field to Bolivar-Bolivar Masses Patriot Armies at Juarez-Wins Battles of Junin and Ayacucho-Dom Pedro Declared Constitutional Emperor of Brazil -Revolts in Spain against King Ferdinand-Continental Powers Move in His Behalf-President Monroe Announces His Famons "Doctrine"-Canning's False Claim to Its Inspiration-Death of Sholley-Rise of Heine-Beethoven, Hummel, Von Weber, Spohr, and Schubert Produce Musical Masterpieces-Meyerbeer and Men- delssohn Begin Careers-Death of Herschel-Death of Canova- Congress of Powers Removes from Vienna to Verona-England Withdraws from Intervention in Spain-France's Envoys Commit Her to Intervention-French Premier Repudiates Act of Envoys, and French King Accepts It. G REEK independence was declared on January 27. After the fall of Ali Pasha in February, the Sultan was able to turn his undivided attention to the Greek revolt. In March a bodv of Samian revolutionists landed in Chios and incited the islanders to rise against the Turk. They laid siege to the citadel held by a Turkish gar- rison. Had the fleet of the Hvdriotes helped them, they might have prevailed. As it was they rendered themselves a prey to the Turkish troops on the mainland. An army of nearly 10,000 Turks landed in Chios, and relieved the be- sieged garrison. Then the fanatical Moslems were let loose on the gentle inhabitants of the little island. Thousands wvere put to the sword. The slave markets of Northern Africa were glutted with Chian women and children. Within a month the once lovely island was a ruined waste. All Greece and Europe were filled with horror. Maurokordatos, now at the head of Greek affairs, was bitterly blamed for not sending over a fleet to save Chios. One single GreekJ took it 433 1ANARIS FIRES TURKISH FLEET into his hands to avenge his countrymen. The Turks were celebrating their sacred month of Ramazan. On the night of June 18 the festival of Biram, the Turkish fleet, under command of Kara Ali, was illuminated with colored lanterns. Into the midst of it Constantine Kanaris, a sea-captain from Psara, drove a fire-ship. Sailing close up to the admiral's flagship, he thrust his bowsprit into one of the portholes. Then setting fire to the pitch and rosin on board his ship, he dropped into his small boat and pulled away. A breeze fanned the flames, and in a moment the big Turkish man-of- war was afire. The powder magazine blew up and the life- boats went up in flames. The burning rigging fell down upon the doomed crew, and the admiral was struck down on his poop-deck. The ship was burned to the water's edge. The Turkish fleet scattered before the shower of blazing sparks, and was only brought together under the guns of the Dardanelles. This exploit made Kanaris the hero of Greece. Within the same year he repeated the feat. The Sultan had thrown his whole land force into the Greek mainland. Khurshid, after his defeat of Ali Pasha, marched to Larissa, in Thessaly. Thence two armies, 50,000 strong, under Bramali and Homer Brionis, converged upon the Morea. In the face of so formidable an invasion, ifau- rokordatos took the field himself. He mismanaged things badly. At Arta he sacrificed his choicest regiment, the fa- mous crops of Philhellenes, composed of foreign officers and commanded by men who had won distinction in Napo- leon's campaign. They were cut down almost to a nman. Maurokordatos fell back to AMlissolonghi. In the meanwhile Dramalis, the Turkish general, with 25,000 foot and 6,000 horse, penetrated into the -Morea. The Greek Government at Argos dispersed. All would have been lost for the Greeks had Dramalis not neglected to cover the mountain passes behind him. While he marched on to XYauplia, the Greek 434 1822 CANNING RETURNS TO POWER mountaineers rose behind him. Dernetrios Ypsilanti, the acting-president of Greece, with a few hundred followers, threw himself into Argos. There he held the Acropolis against the Turkish rear-guard. Kolokotrones, calling out the last men from Tripolitza, relieved Ypsilanti at Argos. The mountain passage was seized. Dramalis had to give up his conquest of the Morea and fight his way back to the Isthmus of Corinth. Without supplies and harassed by hos- tile peasant forces, the Turkish army became badly demoral- ized. Thousands were lost on the wav. Dramalis himself died from over-exposure. The remainder of his army melted awav at Corinth under the combined effects of sickness and drought. A decisive turn in the Greek war for independence was reached. Europe realized that the revolt had grown to the proportions of a national war. Popular sympathy in Russia became more clamorous. Capodistrias, the Russian Prime Minister, rightly measured the force of this long pent-up feeling. Unable to move the Czar, who still floundered in the toils of the Holy Alliance, Capodistrias withdrew from public affairs and retired to Geneva. In England the suicide of Castlereagh brought Canning once more into prominence. He was made Foreign Secre- tary, and Robert Peel, Home Secretary. Canning's long re- tirement after the fiasco of his American policy and his breach with Castlereagh, had served to chasten this statesman. As leader of the opposition, lie had learned to reckon with the forces of popular feeling. He was no longer an ultra- conservative, but a liberal. He now made no disguise of his sympathies with the cause of Greece, and with the struggle for independence in South and Central America. There the course of freedom had gathered so much momentum that it was plain to all that Spain could never prevail without help from others. On May 19, upon the refusal of Ferdinand 435 1822 BATTLE OF PICHINCHA VII to accept the separate crown of MNexico, General Itur- bide proclaimed himself Emperor. He assumed the name of Augustine I. At the same time San Martin and Bolivar met at Guayaquil to dispose of the destinies of South America. San Martin had just succeeded in liberating Peru, and had made his triumphal entry into Lima. Bolivar had brought aid to Ecuador, and established independence there. Jos6 de Sucre, whom Bolivar called the "soul of his armv," de- feated the Spaniards in the famous battle of Pichincha, fought at a height of 10,200 feet above the sea. When Boli- var and San Martin met on July 25, San Martin announced his determination to give a free field to Bolivar, whom he proclaimed "the most extraordinary character of South America; one to whom difficulties but add strength." \With his daughter Mercedes, San Martin retired to Europe, to dwell there in obscurity and poverty. Bolivar, with Generals Sucre, Miller, and Cordova, assembled a great liberating army at Juarez. After a preliminary victory at Juniin, 1Boli- var returned to Lima to assume the reigns of governikient, while his generals pushed on against the forces of the Spanish viceroy. Late in the year a decisive battle was fought at Ayacucho. The revolutionists charged down the mountain ridges upon the Spaniards in the plain, and utterly routed them. The viceroy himself was wounded, with 700 of his men, while 1,400 Spaniards were killed outright. In these casualties the unusual disparity between killed and wounded reveals the unsparing ferocitv of the fight. In Brazil a peaceful revolution was effected in September. After the re- turn of Juan VI to Portugal his son Dom Pedro reigned as regent. On September 7 he yielded to the demands of his American subjects, and proclaimed the independence of Bra- zil. He was declared Constitutional Emperor of Brazil on October 12, and was crowned as such shortly afterward at Rio Janeiro. 436 1822 CIVIL WAR IN' SPAIN' The South American colonies had now in great part se- cured independence. Spain was thereby robbed of her best resources. As financial distress became more widespread, the spirit of discontent rose. The King's plottings with the extreme Royalists of France lost him the confidence of his subjects. In the south the triumphant party of the so-called Exaltados refused obedience to the central administration. The municipal governments of Cadiz, Cartagena, and Sev- ille took the tone of independent republics. In the north the party of the Serviles, instigated by French agitators and their money, broke into open rebellion. After the adjourn- ment of the Cortes, Ferdinand attempted to make a stroke for himself. The Royal Guards were ordered to march from Aranjuez to Madrid to place themselves under the King's personal command. The people took alarm, and several regi- ments of disaffected soldiers were induced to head off the guards. A fight ensued in the streets of Madrid. The guards were scattered. The King found himself a prisoner in his own palace. He wrote to Louis XVIII that his crown was in peril. The Bourbon sympathizers in the north at once seized the town of Seo d'Urgel, and set up a provisional gov- ernment. Civil war spread over Spain. Napoleon's final prophecy that Bourbon rule would end in the ruin of Spain and the loss of all the best colonies was near fulfilment. It was then that the continental Powers of Europe proposed to interfere on behalf of the Spanish m-nonarchy. The death of old Minister Hardenberg in Berlin did not loosen Metter- nich's hold on Prussia. Emperor Alexander hoped to con- ciliate his army, burning to fall uipoii the Turk, by treating them to a light campaign in Spain. In France the Spanish war party likewise had the upper hand. Nothing could save Spain; but Spanish South and Cen- tral America presented another issue. The new republics had developed a thriving trade with Great Britain and the Unlited 437 1822 THE MONROE DOCTRINE States of America, which made it impossible for these coun- tries to ignore their flags. In America Henry Clay, on the floor of Congress, had already urged the recognition of South American independence. In his annual message to Congress in 1822 President Monroe took up the question. On behalf of the United States, he declared that the American conti- nents were henceforth not to be considered a subject for fur- ther colonization by any European Power. "In the war between Spain and her colonies," said President Monroe, "the United States will continue to observe the strictest neu- trality. . . . With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European Power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the governments -who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose indepen- dence we have, on great considerations and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlling in any other manner their destiny, by any European Power, in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." It was the famous Monroe Doctrine, a doctrine that in its substance, if not in words, had already served as the guiding star of Thomas Jefferson's and Madison's foreign policy. It is related that President Monroe, applying to Thomas Jeffer- son for his opinion on the matter, was surprised at the positive nature of the reply which he received. "Our first and fun- damental maxim," said Jefferson, "should be never to entangle ourselves in the broils of Europe; our second, never to suffer Europe to intermeddle with cis-Atlantic affairs." At the same time that America thus flung down her gauntlet to Europe, Canning, on behalf of the British Ministry, pro- posed to inform the allied Cabinets of England's intention to accredit envoys to the South American republics. Assured of the support of the United States, and of Great Britain as 438 1822 DEATH OF SHELLEY lwell, South America could feel free to work out her own destiny. This was the master-stroke of Canning's career. When brought to bay afterward in Parliament, he could proudly boast: "I called the New World into being, in order to redress the balance of the Old." To Americans Canning's boast has ever seemed to rest oii a flimsy foundation. As Fyffe, the English historian of modern Europe, has justly said: "The boast, famous in our Parliamentary history has left an erroneous impression of the part really played by Canning at this crisis. He did not call the New World into existence; he did not even assist it in winning independence, as France had assisted the United States fifty years before; but when this independence had been won he threw over it the Tegis of Great Britain, declaring that no other European Power should reimpose the voke which Spain had not been able to maintain." At the time that Canning made British liberalism re- spected abroad, literary England suffered another irreparable loss by the death of Percy Bysshe Shelley. The last few weeks had been spent by Shelley in Italy in the company of Trelawney, Williams, and Lord Byron. Before this Mauro- kordatos, now battling in Greece, had been their constant companion. In June Leigh Hunt arrived. Shelley and Williams set out in a boat to meet him at Leghorn. The long-parted friends met there. On July 8 Shelley and Wil- liams set sail for the return voyage to Lerici. Ten miles out at sea off Reggio the haze of a summer storm hid their boat from view. Ten days later Shelley's body was washed ashore near Reggio. Owing to the strict quarantine regulations which required that dead bodies cast up by the sea be burned, Shelley's remains were cremated on the shore, in the pres- ence of Bvron, Trelawney, and Leigh Hunt. His ashes were buried in the same burial-ground with Keats, hard by the pyramid of Caius Cestius in Rome. 439 1822 GOLDEN AGE OF GERMAUNI 'MSIC Shelley's poetry belongs primarily to the Revolutionary epoch in modern history. Though he wrote several long nar- rative poems and one great tragedy, he was above all a lyric poet-according to some the greatest lyric poet of England. Either his "Adonais" or the beautiful "Ode to the West Wind" would alone have perpetuated his name in English letters. His life, like his poetry, was almost untrammeled by convention. Both gave great offence to the stricter ele- ments of English society. In some respects Shelley was peculiarly unfortunate. At the age of eighteen, after his expulsion from Oxford University, he married Harriet West- brook, a girl of sixteen, and then found himself unable to support her. Later he abandoned her and eloped with Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin. Within a year his first wife com- mitted suicide, and, three weeks later, Shelley married Mary Godwin. Next came Shelley's trouble with the Chancery. Lord Chancellor Elden refused to give to Shelley the cus- todv of his own children on the ground that Shelley's pro- fessed opinions and conduct were such as the law pronounced immoral. Shelley replied with his famous poetical curse "To the Lord Chancellor." During this same year Thomas de Quincey published his "Confessions of an Opium Eater," a masterpiece of balanced prose. In other parts of the world, likewise, it was a golden period for literature. In France Victor Hugo published his "Odes et Poesies Diverses," a collection of early poems which contained some of his most charming pieces. The rising Swedish poet, Tegner, brought out his "Children of the Last Supper." In Germany Heinrich Heine, then still a student at Bonn, issued his earliest verses. For Germany this was no less a golden age of music. Beethoven, though quite deaf, was still the greatest of living composers. His great Choral Symphony, the ninth, in D minor, was produced during this year, as was his Solemn Mass in D major. As a virtuoso he 440 1822 DEATH OF HERSCHEL1 was rivaled by Hummel, who at this time gave to the world his famous Septet, accepted by himself as his master-work. Two other German composers so distinguished themselves that they were invited to London to conduct the Philharmonic accompaniments. They were Carl Maria von Weber, who had just brought out his brilliant opera, "Der Freischiitz," and Ludwig Spohr, who performed in London his new Sym- phony in D minor. Of other composers there were Franz Schulbert, whose melodious songs and symphonies won him the recognition of the Esterhazys and of Beethoven. Among those whose career was but beginning were Jacob Meyerbeer, a fellow pupil with Weber under Abbe Vogler at Vienna, and Felix Mendelssohn, the precocious pupil of the famous pianist Moscheles. Sir Frederick William Herschel, the greatest modern astronomer, died at Slough in England. Herschel was born in 1738 at Hanover. He was a musician of rare skill and a self-taught mathematician of great ability. In 1757 he deserted the band of Hanoverian Guards in which he played the oboe, although a mere boy, and fled to England, where he taught music and achieved success as a violinist and organist. His studies in sound and harmony led him to take up optics; and from optics to astronomy the step was short. Dissatis- fied with the crude instruments of his time, he made his own telescopes. By day he and his brother and sister ground specula; by night he observed the heavens. His astronomical work includes a careful study of variable stars; an attempt to explain the relation of sun-spots to terrestrial phenomena; the determination that the periods of rotation of various satellites, like the rotation of our own moon, are equal to the times of their revolutions about their primaries; and the dis- covery of thre planet Uranus and two of its satellites, and of the sixth and seventh satellites of Saturn. His greatest work was his study of binary stars and the demonstration of 441 1822 DEATH OF CANOVA his belief that the law of gravitation is universal in its application. Canova, the celebrated sculptor, died at Venice, October 13. Antonio Canova was born in 1757 at Passaguo, near Treviso. He was first an apprentice to a statuary in Bassano, from whom he went to the Academy of Venice, where he had a brilliant career. In 1779 he was sent by the Senate of Venice to Rome, and there produced his Theseus and the Slain Minotaur. In 1783 Canova undertook the execution of the tomb of Pope Clement XIV. His fame rapidly in- creased. He established a school for the benefit of young Venetians, and among other works produced the well-known Hebe and the colossal Hercules hurling Lichas into the sea. In 1797 Canova finished the model of the celebrated tomb of Archduchess Christina of Austria. Napoleon called the ris- ing sculptor to France, and he there executed the famous nude portrait of Napoleon now preserved in Milan. After his re- turn to Italy he fashioned his Perseus with the Head of Me- dusa at Rome. When the Belvidere Apollo was carried off to France, this piece of statuary was thought not unworthy of the classic Apollo's place and pedestal in the Vatican. Among the later works of Canova are the colossal group of Theseus Killing the Minotaur, a Paris, and a Hector. After Napoleon's second fall in 1815, Canova was commissioned by the Pope to demand the restoration of the works of art car- ried from Rome. He went to Paris and succeeded in his mission. At his return to Rome in 1816 the Pope created him Marquis of Orchia, with a pension of 3,000 scudi, and his name was entered in the Golden Book at the Capital. His closing years were spent in Venice. Upon Canning's accession to the Ministry in England Wellington was appointed representative of Great Britain at the Congress of Powers convened at Vienna. The unset- tled state of public opinion kept Wellington in England and 4/D 1822 CONGRESS OF VERONA latpr at Paris. He did not join the Congress until after its adjournment to Verona, to dispose of purely Italian affairs. Thus it happened that the supplementary meetings at Verona became the real European Congress of 1822. With the Nea- politan problem practically settled, and the Greek war with Turkey at a standstill, the situation in Spain was the most vital issue. The Czar of Russia and iMetternich were deter- mined not to tolerate the Constitution of the Spanish liberals. Alexander hoped to make good Russia's non-intervention in Greece by marching a victorious army into Spain. The ex- treme Royalists of France, on the other hand, were so bent on accomplishing this task themselves that they wvere resolved not to permit any Russian troops to pass through France. With the spectre of a general European war thus looming on the horizon, England endeavored to hold the balance for peace. Acting under the instructions of Canning, Wellington declared that England would rather set herself against the great alliance than consent to joint intervention in Spain. In his despatches to Canning, Wellington expressed his belief that this would result in a decision to leave the Spaniards to themselves. The only result was that England was left out of the affair altogether, as she had been in the case of Naples. It was partly owing to this international slight that Canning put his foot down so firmly in behalf of Portugal and the South American colonies. At the Congress of Verona Metternich once more won the day. With his backing, the French envoys, Montmorency and Chateaubriand, in defiance of home instructions, eom- mitted France to war with Spain. It was agreed that, in default of radical changes in the Spanish Constitution, France and her allies would resort to intervention. Welling- ton for England rejected this proposal, but all the other Powers consented. Louis XVIII went over to the war party and appointed Chateaubriand Minister of Foreign Affairs 443 1822 EVENTS OF 1823 French Ambassador Recalled from Madrid-Duke of Angoulfme Leads Army into Spain to Restore Order-Cortes Withdraws to Cadiz and Appoints Regency-Dom Miguel Leads Counter-Revolution in Portugal-Central American States Federate in a Republic-Santa Anna Deposes Iturbide and Establishes Mexican Republic-Bolivar Proclaims Himself Dictator of Peru-Dom Pedro Dissolves Consti- tutional Assembly in Brazil and Exiles Its Leaders-Three Brazilian Provinces Revolt-French Storm Cadiz-Liberals Release Ferdi- nand on His Signing Amnesty-He Breaks His Word and Pro- scribes All Liberals-He Revives the Inquisition-He Hangs Riego -Angoulfme Returns in Disgust to France-The Liberal Deputy, Manuel, is Ejected from French Chamber for Criticism of Spanish War-Guizot's Verdict on the War-Deaths of Generals Dumouriez and Davoust-Pius VII Dies and is Succeeded by Leo XII-Death of Jenner-Amherst Succeeds Hastings in India-Industrial and Literary Progress in America-Porter Ends Piracy in West Indies. HE Spanish Government was resolved to maintain national independence. It would make no conces- sion. The French Ambassador in Madrid was re- called. At the opening of the French Chambers in January, thie King himself announced his decision: "One hundred thousand Frenchmen, commanded by a prince of my family, whom I fondly call my son, are ready to march with a prayer to the God of St. Louis that they may preserve the throne of Spain to the grandson of Henri IV. They shall save that fair kingdom from ruin and reconcile it to Europe." By the middle of March the Duke of Angouleme and his staff left Paris. On April 7 the French vanguard crossed the Bidas- soa, and the Duke entered Irun, welcomed by Spanish roy- alists. About the same time the Cortes and Constitutional Ministry left Madrid, and compelled King Ferdinand VII to accompany them to Seville. The forces of the Spanish Government fell back without striking a blow. Bands of freebooters calling themselves royalists went pillaging throughout the northern provinces. The commandant of 444 FALL OF ITURBIDE Madrid felt constrained to beg the French to hasten their ad- vance lest the city fall a prey to the freebooters. Already the looting of the suburbs had begun, when the French entered the Spanish capital on the 24th of May. A regency was ap- pointed under the Duke of Infantado. The continental Powers sent accredited representatives to Madrid. Mean- while the Cortes withdrew to Cadiz. King Ferdinand re- fiised to accompany them; so they declared him of unsound mind, and appointed a regency over his head. The French prepared to lay siege to Cadiz. Civil war broke out in Spain. Across the border in Por- tuggal, Dom Miguel, the second son of the absent King, ex- cited a counter-rovolutio6n. This state of affairs in the Pen- insilda gave a finishing stroke to the royal cause in America. In Central America the revolutionists of Costa Rica and Guatemala, who had made common cause with Mexico, pro- claimed their independence. In Mexico Santa Anna pro- claimed the republic at Vera Cruz. Emperor Iturbide, who felt his throne tottering beneath him, retired, and was ban- ished from Mexico with an annuity. His sympathizers in Costa Rica were overthrown in a battle at Ochomoco. On the first day of July Costa Rica was united with its neigh- boring States in the federation of Central America. Nor had Peru been idle. Two royalist armies under Santa Cruz had entered the upper provinces. During the summer months they overran the country between La Paz and Oruro. But in early autumn they were forced back by the revolution- ists under Bolivar, who entered Lima on September 1, and had himself proclaimed dictator of Peru. In Brazil, during this interval, the Constitutional Assembly had been convoked in accordance with Dom Pedro's promise. Under the leader- ship of the two Andrade brothers the delegates insisted on the most liberal of constitutions. Dom Pedro's first attempt to suppress the liberal leaders was foiled by the Assembly. Pi- 445 1823 FERDINAND BREAKS AMNESTY nally he dissolved the contentious assembly and exiled the Andrade brothers to France. In the provinces of Pernam- buco and Ceara a republic was proclaimed. Rebellion broke out in Cisplatina. In Spain the two opposing regencies vied with each other in retaliatory measures. Odious persecutions were in- stituted on both sides. In vain the Duke of Angouleme tried to restrain the reprisals of the Spanish royalists. In August he appeared before Cadiz. He called upon King Fer- dinand to publish an amnesty and restore the medieval Cortes. But the Spanish Ministry, in the King's name, sent a defiant answer. Cadiz was thereupon besieged. On August 30 the French stormed the fort of the Trocadero. Three weeks later the city was bombarded. For the Spanish liberals, the cause had become hopeless. The French refused all terms but the absolute liberation of the King, who had been seized and held prisoner by the Cortes. On Ferdinand's assurance that he bore no grudge against his captors, the liberals agreed to re- lease him. On September 30 Ferdinand signed an absolute amnesty. Next day he was taken across the bay to the French headquarters. The Cortes dissolved. The Duke of Angoulme received King Ferdinand with misgivings. Already he had written to France: "What most worries the liberals is the question of guaranties. They know that the King's word is utterly worthless, and that in spite of his promises he may very well hang every one of them" Within twelve hours Ferdinand annulled all acts of the Constitutional Government during the preceding three years. By approving an act of the regency of Madrid, which de- clared all those who had taken part in the removal of the King to be traitors, Ferdinand practically signed the death warrant of those men whom he had just left with fair prom- ises on his lips. Even before reaching Madrid, Ferdinand VII banished for life from Madrid and from the country 446 1823 MANUEL EXCLUDED FROM)\ VPRE XC ChIAIMBER 1823 fifty miles around it everv person who had served the gov- ernment in Spain during the last three years. Don Saez, the King's confessor, was made Secretary of State. He re- vived the Inquisition, and ordered the prosecution of all those concerned in the pernicious and heretical doctrines associated with the late outbreak. Ferdinand justified his acts with a royal pronunciamento containing this characteristic passage: "My soul is confounded with the horrible spectacle of the sacrilegious crimes wbhich impiety has dared to commit against the Supreme Mlaker of the universe. . . . My soul shudders and will not be able to return to tranquillity, until, in union with my children, my faithful subjects, I offer to God holocausts of piety." Thousands of persons were imprisoned, or forced to flee the country. Young men were shot for being Freemasons. On Noovember 7 Riego, leader of the revolution of 1820 that had restored the con- stitution, was hanged. Women were sent to the galleys for owning pictures of Riego. The Duke of Angoulkme returned to France thoroughly disenchanted with the cause for which lie had drawn his sword. In France as in England, the return of absolute rule in Spain was viewed with extreme disfavor by the Liberals. The success of the French arms, to be sure, gave the gov- ernment an overwhelming majority at the elections. The voice of the Liberals was heard, however, in the first debate over the Spanish war. Manuel, a Liberal deputy, denounced foreign intervention in Spain, citing the fate that befell the Stuarts in England for seeking foreign assistance. For this alleged defence of regicide Manuel was excluded from the Chamber. On his refusal to give up his constitutional rights, he was forcibly ejected by the National Guards. "It is an insult to the National Guard," exclaimed the vener- able Lafayette. In spite of the momentary triumph of the 447 DEATH OF JENNER Rovalists, Guizot's final verdict on French intervention in Spain expresses the true attitude of France: "The war was not popular in France; in fact, it was unjust, because unnecessary. The Spanish revolution, in spite of its excesses, exposed France and the Restoration to no serious risk; and the intervention was an attack upon the principle of the legitimate independence of States. It really produced neither to Spain nor France any good result. It restored Spain to the incurable and incapable despotism of Ferdinand VII, without putting a stop to the revolutions; it substituted the ferocities of the absolutist populace for that of the anarchical populace. Instead of confirming the influ- ence of France beyond the Pyrenees, it threw the King of Spain into the arms of the absolutist Powers, and delivered up the Spanish Liberals to the protection of England." During this year in France occurred the deaths of Du- mouriez, the famous general of the Revolution, and of Mar- shal Davoust, the hero of Eckmiihl, Auerstidt, and a score of other victories won during the Napoleonic campaigns. At Rome Pope Pius VII, the one-time prisoner of Napoleon, died in old age, and was succeeded by Pope Leo XII. Dr. Edward J. Jenner, the great English surgeon and originator of vaccination, died in the same year at London. Jenner was led to his great discovery by the remark of an old peasant woman: "I can't catch smallpox, for I have had cowpox." In 1796 Jenner performed the first vaccination on a boy patient, Jarrmes Phipps, whom he subsequently endowed with a house and grounds. The scientific results of this ex- periment and those that followed were embodied by Jenner in his "Inquiry into the causes and effects of the variolu vac- cinse," published on the eve of the nineteenth century. Jen- ner's epoch-making cure for the dread disease of smallpox won him instant renown. Parliament, in 1802, voted him a national reward of pound;10,000, and a few years later added 448 1823 PORTER ENDS WEST INDIAN PIRACY another gift of pound;20,000. After his death a public monument was erected to Jenner's memory on Trafalgar Square. In India Lord Hastings retired from the governorship at Calcutta and was succeeded by Lord Amherst. At the time of his accession to office, Dutch influence had already become paramount in Borneo, whereas the British were firmly settled in Singapore. In North America it was a year of industrial progress. On October 8 the first boat passed through the new Erie Canal from Rochester to New York. In Brooklyn the first three- story brick houses were built and the paving of streets was begun. The new system of numbering houses came in vogue. The earliest steam printing press was set up in New York and issued its first book. The manufacture of pins was be- gun, and wine in marketable quantities was first made in Cincinnati. American letters saw the appearance of Cooper's novels: "The Pioneers" and "The Pilot." Halleck published his famous poem, "Marco Bozzaris." During this year an American squadron under Commodore Porter put an end to piracy and freebooting in the West Indies. On the first day of December the Eighteenth Congress met and Henry Clay was once more elected Speaker of the House. 1823 EVENTS OF 1824 Congress Passes Protective Tariff Bill-And Recognizes South American Republics-Dom Pedro Accepts Constitution for Brazil-Mexico Annexes California-Iturbide Returns and is Shot-England Rec- ognizes All American Republics-Death of Lord Byron Rouses In- terest in Greek Cause-Moslems Seize Crete, Kossa, and Psara and Massacre Inhabitants-Are Repelled at Samos-Burmese In- vade British Territory-British Occupy Rangoon-Are Besieged by Burmese under Bundula-Progress of Literature in Germany and France-Dominance of Clerical Party in Fraic'e-Louis XVIII Dies and is Succeeded by His Brother, Count of Artois, as Charles X. N January a protective tariff bill was introduced in the American Congress. It was championed by Clay, ksupported by the representatives of the Middle At- lantic and Western States, and opposed by the representa- tives of the South and by New England. On May 22 Con- gress, by a majority of five in the House and four in the Senate, passed the measure. The average rate of tariff was thirty-seven per cent. Before the passage of the bill Eng- land had been importing goods more cheaply than Americans could manufacture them. American manufacturers could now sell their goods at a profit. Their arguments were op- posed by believers in free trade, who held that the country would naturally produce that which was prohibited, and that the productions which were brought into existence by taxa- tion put a portion of the people into unprofitable employment, advantageous only to the manufacturers. But the AMiddle and Western States, with the aid of the representatives from the manufacturing districts of New England, were strong enough to give the tariff a small majority. From 1824 the imposition of protective duties has been the main bone of contention of the two great political parties in America. 450 RECOGNITION OF SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS 1824 Political leadership in the United States was passing from the South to the North. New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio were fast pushing to the front. Buffalo had 20,000 popula- tion; and other interior towns were growing rapidly. iMil- lions of acres of valuable lands were put under cultivation in the central and western counties of New York and Pennsyl- vania and in Ohio; manufacturing industries multiplied. From a sparsely inhabited country in 1800, Ohio had grown, in 1824, to be the fifth State in population. During the first session of Congress a special message from President Monroe recommended the establishment of intercourse with the new independent States of South Amer- ica-Venezuela, New Granada, Buenos Ayres, Chile, and Peru. Congress voted for recognition by an overwhelming majority, and the President signed the bill. The United States was the first among the civilized Powers to welcome the new republics. The struggle for independence in South America was furthered more than ever by the unsatisfactory state of affairs on the Peninsula. In Spain the return of absolute rule was still followed by a reign of terror. The people there relapsed into medieval barbarism. In Portugal the revolution stirred up by Domu Miguel ended with the expulsion of that Prince from Lisbon. His father, Dom Pedro, in Brazil, thought it wise to recognize thee liberal constitution imposed upon him by his people. In the other Latin-American countries the people rebelled against one-man rule. In Chile General O'Higgins was forced to resign his dictatorship and a provisional Triumvi- rate assumed the government. At Limia Bolivar found his powers curtailed. Mariano Prado was elected president. The feeling against imperialism was so strong in Central America that all the smaller States joined in confederation to ward off this danger threatening them from Mexico. 451 DEATH OF BYRON Eventually San Salvador, together with Nicaragua and Costa Rica, joined the Central American Union. The first Con- gress in Costa Rica elected Juan Mora president. In Mex- ico Santa Anna established a provisional government, whose strength may be judged from its successful annexation of California. Ex-Emperor Iturbide, who in defiance of his exile returned to Mexico, wvas arrested as he landed at Sota la Marina in July. HIe was taken to the capital, tried, con- deunned, and shot. Henceforth there was no danger of a re- turn to Spanish rule. In England Canning followed Monroe with an absolute recognition of the independent governments in America. At this time a powerful impetus was given to the cause of Greek independence by the tragic deatly of Lord Byron, A few months before the poet had sailed from Genoa for Greece to take active part in the war for freedom. He died of fever at Missolonghi on April 19, at the age of thirty-six. Byron's death served the Greek cause better perhaps than all he eouLld have achieved had his life been prolonged. It caused a greater stir throughomt continental Europe than it did in England. In truth Byron's poetry was more appre- ciated by the world at large than by his countrymen-a lit- erary anomaly that still persists in the twentieth century. Mazzini predicted: "The day will come when Democracy will remember all that it owes to Byron. England, too, will, I hope, one day remember the mission-so entirely English, yet hitherto overlooked by her-which Byron fulfilled on the Continent; the European cast given by him to English lit- erature, and the appreciation and sympathy for England w\vhich he awakened among us." To most Englishmen of his day Byron, like Shelley, appeared as a monster of impious wickedness. Unlike Shelley, he attained thereby the vogue of the forbidden. Byron's life in London between 1812 and 1816 certainly increased his tendency to cynicism, as did his 452 1824 DEVASTATION OF CRETE divorce from his wife. While these experiences distorted his personal character, they supplied him, however, with much of the irony wrought into his masterpiece, "Don Juan." His poetic genius derived its strongest stimulus from his embit- tered domestic life and from his travels in Spain, Italy, and Greece. This twofold character of the poet it is that is re- vealed in his best poems, "Childe Harold" and "Don Juan." He used both works as receptacles for the most incongruous ideas. "If things are farcical," he once said to Trelawney, "they will do for 'Don Juan'; if heroical, you shall have another canto of 'Childe Harold.' When Byron died, Missolonghi had been delivered from its first siege. Greece was plunged in civil war. Roloko- trones, who set himself up against the government of Kon- duriottes and Kolletes, was overthrown and lodged in a prison on the island of Hydra. An offer of Russian intervention at the price of Russian suzerainty was rejected by the Greeks. Encouraged by this, the Sultan appealed to his vassal, IMehe- met Ali of Egypt, to help him exterminate the Greeks. The island of Crete was held out to Mehemet Ali as a prize. The ambitious ruler of Egypt responded with enthusiasm. He raised an army of 90,000 men and a fleet, and sent them forth under the command of his adopted son Ibrahim. Early in the spring the Egyptian expedition landed in Crete and all but exterminated its Greek population. The island of Kos- sos was next captured, and its inhabitants were butchered. In July the Turkish fleet took advantage of the Greek Gov- ernment's weakness to make a descent upon Psara, one of the choicest islands of Greece. In spite of desperate resistance, the citadel of Psara was stormed, and the Psariotes were put to the sword. Thousands were slain, while the women and children were carried off as slaves. The Greeks, instead of desponding over this disaster, were aroused to fiercer resistance than ever. A Hvdriote XlXth Century-Vol. 1I-2 453 1824 EXPEDITION AGAINST BURMESE fleet foiled Ibrahim Pasha's attempt on Samos. When he tried to return to Crete his fleet was beaten back with a sig- nal reverse. Finally, late in the year, the Egyptians suc- ceeded in eluding the vigilance of the ilydriote sea-captains, and regained their base of supplies in Crete. While Canning's Ministry was still preparing the ground for European intervention in Greece, the British Govern- ment in India found itself with another native war on its hands. In 1822 the Burmese leader Bundula had invaded the countries between Burma and Bengal. The Burmese conquered the independent principalities of Assam and Muni- pore, and threatened Cachar. Next Bundula invaded Brit- ish territory and cut off a detachment of British sepoys. It was evident that the Burmese were bent on the conquest of Bengal. Lord Amherst, who had assumed charge early in 1824, sent an expedition against them under Sir Archibald Campbell. The resistance of the Burmese was despicable. The British soldiers nowhere found foes worthy of their steel. In May the British expedition, having marched straight to Burma, occupied the capital, Rangoon, which was found de- serted and denuded of all supplies. Ill-fed and far from suc- cor, the British had to spend a rainy season there. Taking advantage of their precarious position, Bundula returned late in the year with an army of 60,000 men. The English- men were besieged. In December they made a successful sortie and stormed the Burmese stockades. Bundula with the remains of his army was driven up the banks of the river Irawaddy. They made a stand at Donabew, some forty miles from Rangoon, where they held the British in check. The rest of the world throughout this year lay in pro- found peace. In Germany the rulers of the various prin- cipalities were allowed to continue their reigns undisturbed. Only in Brunswick the assumption of the government by Charles Frederick William met with the disapproval of the 454 1824 LORD 3BYRON E,,-, j This page in the original text is blank. DEATH OF LOUIS XVIII German Diet. Although pronounced incapable of reigning, he succeeded none the less in clinging to his throne. A more important event for the enlightened element in Germany was the appearance of the first of Leopold von iRanke's great his- tories of the Romance and Teutonic peoples. In France Lamartine brought out his "Death of Soc- rates," and Louis Thiers published the first instalments of his great "History of the French Revolution." Simulta- neously there appeared Frangois Mignet's "History of the French Revolution." While these historians were expound- ing the lessons of this great regeneration of France, the Roy- alists in the Chambers did their best to undo its work. After the ejection of Manuel from the Chambers, and the Ain- isters' consequent appeal to the country, the elections were so manipulated by the government that only nineteen Liberal members were returned to the Chambers. Immediate advan- tage was taken of this to favor the Clericais and returned emigres, and to change the laws so as to elect a new House every seven years, instead of one-fifth part of the Chamber each year. Monseigneur Frayssinous, the leader of the Cler- icals, was made Minister of Public Instruction. The friction between Prime Minister Villele and Chateaubriand was ended by Villdle's summary dismissal of Chateaubriand as Foreign Minister. Chateaubriand at once became the most formidable opponent of the Ministry in the "Journal des D6bats," and in the Chamber of Peers. At this stage of pub- lie affairs Louis XVIII died, on September 16, with the ancient pomp of royalty. Before he expired he said, point- ing to his bed: "My brother will not die in that bed." The old King's prophecy was based on the character of the French people as much as on that of his brother. He was duly suc- ceeded by his brother, Count of Artois, who took the title "Charles X" and retained Villele as Minister of Finance. 455 1824 EVENTS OF 1825 Charles X Crowned King of France-Adopts Reactionary Polic-John Quincy Adams Elected President-He Advocates Internal Improve- ments-Erie Canal Opened-Capitol Rebuilt-Lafayette if Guest of the Nation-Republic of Argentina Formed-Wages Successful War with Brazil for Retention of Uruguay-At Siege of Donabew British Kill Bundula-They Crush Burmese at Prome and Annex Assam and Other Provinces-Infant Prince of Bhurtpore Impris- oned by Usurper-Ochterlony, Advancing to His Help, is Recalled by Amherst-Usurper Forces Amherst Himself to Retreat-Com- bermere Imprisons Usurper and Restores Prince-Stephenson Runs First Steam Locomotive-Other Inventions and Disc-overies Bank of England Avoids Panic by Contracting Currency-Huskisson In- augurates Free Trade Policy-Ibrahim Overruns Morea-He Be- sieges Nauplia and Missolonghi-Death of Alexander I Prevents Imminent Russian Declaration of War against Turkey-Rise of Russian Literature- Alexander's Sons Enact Alphonse and Gaston -Nicholas Finally Accepts Throne Moscow Regiment Rebels and is Massacred-Deaths of Fresnel and David. HARLES X was crowned King of France in the C Cathedral of Rheims. His first public measure was the appropriation of a million francs to indemnify the French Royalists, whose lands had been confiscated dur- ing the French Revolution. Next came the proposal of a law on sacrilege, and one for primogeniture. Both bills were strenuously opposed by the Liberals. Broglie exclaimed: "What you are now preparing is a social and political revo- lution, a revolution against the revolution which changed France nearly forty years ago." Old Lafayette was glad to leave the country to visit :North America. In the United States the election of 1824 had to be de- cided by the House of Representatives. For the Presidency the leading candidates wvere Andrew Jackson and John Quincy, Adams. Jackson had received the highest number of electoral votes-99 wvere for him and 84 for Adams. In the House of Representatives Clay, as leader, opposed Jack- 456 JOHN QUINCY ADAMS ELECTED PRESIDENT 1825 son. Adams was declared President, with Calhoun for Vice- President. John Quincy Adams was then fifty-eight years of age. Washington had made him Minister to The Hague, and then to Lisbon, and in 1797 his father, then President, sent him as Minister to Berlin. In 1803 he was United States Senator. Six years later he was Minister to Russia. During both of Monroe's terms he was Secretary of State. Upon his inauguration as President, Adams made Clay Sec- retary of State. The adherents of Jackson declared that a bargain had been made between Clay and Adams, who then paid Clay, they alleged, for his support in the "scrub race" for the Presidency. Randolph characterized the supposed arrangement as a "bargain between the Puritan and the Black Leg," and in consequence was challenged by Clay to fight a duel. Neither was injured. The election was fol- lowed by an immediate reorganization of political parties, on the question of supporting Adams's administration. Whether the successor of Adams should be a :Northerner or a Southerner was the question at issue. His opponents were slave-holders and their Northern friends; his supporters, the antagonists of the Democratic party, whether known as Na- tional Republican, Whig, or Republican party, all of which terms were in use. For the first time the new Congress, under the reapportionment, represented the entire population of the country, with New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio in the lead. In the Senate were men of brilliant promise. Clay was still a leader, and so was Webster, in the rising majesty of his renown. The contest between the parties was nar- rowed down to two great issues-internal improvements under national auspices, and tariff for the protection of manufactures. President Adams in his first message gave opportunity for concerted opposition. He took advanced ground in favor of national expenditure on internal improve- ments, and urged the multiplication of canals, the endow- 457 LAFAYETTE'S VISIT TO AMERICA ment of a national university, expenditures for scientific re- search, and the erection of a national observatory. On November 4 the first boat traveling along the new Erie Canal reached New York. Through the efforts of De Witt Clinton, the State of New York without Congressional aid had completed the great Eric Canal. Its annual tolls were found to amount to half its cost. The financial and commercial results of the great work were immediate and manifest. The cost of carrying freight between Albany and New York was reduced from the 1820 rate of 88 per ton to 22.50, and soon to 6.50. Travel was no less facili- tated, so that it was possible for emigrants to reach Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin cheaply. These fertile States grew accordingly in population. In 1825 the Capitol at Wash- ington was nearly completed; the outer walls proved to be uninjured by the fire of 1814. The foundation of the cen- tral building had been laid in 1818, and this edifice was now completed on its original plan. The American visit of the old Marquis de la Fayette- to give him his French name-was celebrated with national rejoicings. Years ago, -when lie left the American Republic after its independence was achieved, it was a poor, weak, and struggling nation. Its prosperity and increasing power now amazed him. The thirteen colonies along the coast had in- creased to twenty-four independent, growing, and progres- sive commonwealths, reaching a thousand miles westward from the sea. Lafayette was the nation's guest for a year. On June 17, 1825, just fifty years after the battle of Bunker Hill, he laid the cornerstone of the obelisk which commemo- rates that battle in Boston. On this same occasion Daniel Webster made one of his great speeches. Lafayette returned to France in the American frigate "Brandywine," named in honor of the first battle in which Lafayette fought and was wounded half a century before. Congress presented him 458 1825 ENGLISH CONQUER BURMA 8 with a gift of 200,000 in money, and with; a township of land in recognition of the disinterested services of his youth. In South America thirteen independent States joined at Buenos Ayres in a powerful confederation andl formed the Republic of Argentina. A national constitution was adopted and Rivadiera elected President. The new repub- lie wvas soon called upon to prol e its mettle in the war levied against it by Brazil for the possession of Uruguay. In the end Uruguay remained a part of Argentina. Brazil had previously achieved its complete independence from the mother country by assuming the public debt of Portugal, amounting to 10,000,000. England as before gave official recognition to these changes of government. The British war against the Burmese was nearly over. Early in the year the British forces left at Rangoon advanced up the river Irawaddy toward Donabew. Tile first attempt to take this stronghold was repulsed, wvhereupon the British settled down to a regular siege. While trying to get the range with their mortars the gunners succeeded in killing Bundula, the chieftain of the Burmese. His brother flinched from the command of the army and was promptly beheaded. The Burmese forces went to pieces. The British proceeded to Prome, and inflicted another crushing defeat on the re- maining detachments of the Burmese army. At the approach of the British eolumni the Burmese rulers at Ava became frantic. All the demented women that could be found in and about Ava wvere gathered together and conducted to the front that they might bewitch the English. When this measure proved ineffectual, Prince Tharawadi tried to stem the British approach, but could not get his followers to face the enemy, All the country from Rangoon to Ava was under British control. The Burmese came to terius. As a result of the conflict the territories of Assam, Arrakan, and Tenaserim were ceded to the British. 459 1825 STEPHENSON'S "IRON HORSE" While the British were still in the midst of this campaign a crisis occurred in Bhurtpore. The sudden death of the Rajah there left no successor to the throne but an infant son of seven. He was proclaimed Rajah under the guardianship of his uncle. A cousin of the dead King won over the army of Bhurtpore, and, putting the uncle to death, imprisoned the little Rajah. Sir David Ochterlony, the aged British Resi- dent at Delhi, interfered in behalf of the little prince and advanced British troops into Bhurtpore. His measures were repudiated by Lord Amherst. Sir David took the rebuff so much to heart that lie resigned his appointment. Within two months after his retirement the old soldier died in bitterness of soul. The sequel vindicated his judgment. In defiance of the British Government, the usurper of Bhurtpore rallied around him all the dissatisfied spirits of the Alahrattas, Pin- darees, Jats, and Rajputs. Lord Amherst was forced to re- treat to Vera. The British army under Lord Combermere crossed the border and pushed through to Bhurtpore. The heavy mud walls of the capital had to be breached with mines. The usurper was deposed and put out of harm's way in a British prison. With the restoration of the infant Prince in Bhurtpore, all danger of another great Indian rising seemed at an end. At home in England it was a period of unprecedented scientific and industrial development. Following Faraday's recent conversion of the electric current into mechanical mo- tion, Sturgeon invented the prototype of the electromagnet. The first public railway for steam locomotives was opened between Stockton and Darliaigton by Edward Peese and George Stephenson-an innovation which caused great ex- citement throughout England. On the opening day, Septem- ber 27, an immense concourse of people assembled along the line to see the train go by. Nearly every one prophesied that the "iron horse" would be a failure. The train weighed 460 182 OPPOSITION IN PARLIAMENT TO RAILROADS 1825 about ninety English tons, and consisted of six wagons loaded with coal and flour, a covered coach containing direc- tors and proprietors, and twenty-one coal wagons fitted up for invited passengers, nearly 600 in number. Stephenson's engine, named the "Locomotion," had a ten-foot boiler and weighed not quite 1,500 pounds. As six miles an hour was supposed to be the limit of speed, it w-as arranged that a man on horseback should ride on the track ahead of the engine carrying a flag. The train was started without difficulty amid cheers. Many tried to keep up with it by running, and some gentlemen on horseback galloped across the fields to ac- company the train. After a few minutes Stephenson shouted to the horseman with the flag to get out of the way, for he was going "to let her go." Ordering the fireman to "keep her hot, lad," he opened wide the throttle-valve and the speed was quickly raised to twelve miles an hour and then to fif- teen, and the runners on foot, the gentlemen on horseback, and the horseman with the flag were left far behind. So, with the cross-beams and side-rods trembling from the violent motion, the red-hot chimney ejecting clouds of black smoke, amid the cheers of the delighted spectators and to the aston- ishment of the passengers-the immortal George Stephenson brought his train safely into Darlington. So successful was the Stockton and Darlington Railway that a bill was brought in Parliament for the construction of a railroad between Liverpool and Manchester after Stephen- son's plan. The scheme was violently opposed. Its detrac- tors, among whom were Lords Sefton and Derby, declared that Stephenson's locomotive would poison the air, kill the birds as they flew over them, destroy the preservation of pheasants, burn up the farms and homesteads near the lines; that oats and hay would become unsalable because horses would become extinct; traveling on the highways would be- come impossible; country inns would be ruined; boilers 461 1825 SCIENTIFIC INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES would burst and kill hundreds of passengers. Indeed, there was no peril imaginable that was not predicted to attend the working of a railroad by steam. The bill was thrown out by the committee, by a vote of 37 against 36. After a second Parliamentary battle, the bill was passed through both Houses by a majority of forty-seven votes. The passage of the act cost pound;27,000. Almost coincidentally, Faraday found that benzine was a constituent of petroleum, a discovery destined to affect the modern construction of automobile vehicles toward the close of the century. A number of other achievements made this an important year for science in England. John Crowther took out a patent for his invention of a hydraulic crane. The steam jet was first applied to construction work by Timothy Hackworth. Joseph Clement built a planing machine for iron. One of the earliest chain suspension bridges was erected at Mlenai Strait by Thomas Thelford, and at the same time Brunel sunk his first shaft for the Thames tunnel. Significant of the industrial revival of those days was the opening of mechanics' institutes at Exeter and Belfast. In Canada the newly founded McGill College was raised to the rank of a university. A financial measure of far-reaching import was the Bank of England's sudden diminution of its circulation to the extent of pound;3,500,000 by the combined exer- tions of the bank and of the royal mint. A crisis in public funds was thus averted. The most important political meas- ure of the year was Canning's attempt to repeal the political disabilities of the Catholics in England. A bill to this effect was passed through the Commons, but was thrown out by the Rouse of Lords. Canning's friend Huskisson inaugurated a commercial policy, which was founded on the theory of free trade, destined to bring about the repeal of the corn laws. The situation in Greece was calculated to stiffen the backbone of Canning's foreign policy. On February 22 Ibra- 462 DEATH OF ALEXANDER I him's Egyptian armny had crossed the sea unopposed and overran the Morea. The Greeks were defeated near Nodoni, and the garrison of Sphakteria was overwhelimed. The forts of Navarino capitulated. In vain was old Kolokotrones re- leased from his prison to oppose the onslaught of Ibrahim's Arabs. The Greeks were driven back through Tripolitza, cnd did not succeed in making a stand until the Turks reached Nauplia. Here Demetrios Ypsilanti with a few hundred men repulsed the Turkish vanguard at Lerna. Ibra- him settled down to the siege of Nauplia and of Missolonghi. The country round about was laid waste and the people killed; Ibrahim's hordes even cut down all trees and saplings. Thus the fertile mountains and hillsides of Greece were changed into the barren rocks they are to-day. Nothing so excited the sympathy of the lovers of liberty in Europe as these wanton ravages on classic soil committed by the savages of the desert. Even Alexander of Russia was so moved by the rising indignation of his people that he dissolved diplomatic conferences at St. Petersburg in August. He issued a dec- laration that Russia, acting on its own discretion, would put a stop to the outrages on Greece. Accompanied by the leaders of the Russian war party, he left St. Petersburg and traveled to the Black Sea. All Europe waited for the long-threatened Russian advance on Constantinople. Suddenly news arrived that the Czar had died at Taganrog, November 19, 0. S. (December 1). In the beginning of his rule Alexander had reversed the despotic tendencies of his predecessors. Free travel was per- mitted; foreign books and papers were allowed to enter; the better classes of the community were exempted from corporal punishments; the emancipation of serfs was begun., and the collegiate organization of the administration was supplanted by ministries modeled after those of the chief European countries. As early as 1802 Alexander could boast of a Cab- 463 1825 BRIGHT AND DARK DAYS IN RUSSIA inet as good as that of any constitutional monarch. Another far-reaching reform was the reorganization of Russian public education, and the encouragement given to the publication of Bibles. A temporary relaxation of the censorship resulted in the foundation of societies of literature and journals. Writers like Pushkin and Gogol brought forth their earliest works. Koltsev discovered a new source of poetry in the popular songs. Lermontov sang the wild beauty of the Cau- casus, and Ozerov wrote his classical drama "Dmitri Don- skoi," which recalled the struggles of Russia against the Tar- tars. Modern romantic tendencies were advanced by Jou- kovsky's translation of Schiller's and Byron's poems. Ginka composed the scores for his earlier operas. When Alexander came under the influence of Madame de Krudener and the more baneful ascendency of Metter- nich everything was changed for the worse. The publication of Bibles was stopped; the censorship was reestablished in its full rigor; Speranski's great undertaking of a Russian code of laws was nipped in the bud; Galytsin, the liberal Minister of Publication, had to resign, and Araktcheyev, a reactionary of extreme type, was put in his place. Some idea of the dark days that followed may be gathered from Araktcheyev's first measures. The teaching of the geological theories of Buffon and of the systems of Copernicus and Newton were forbidden as contrary to Holy Writ. Medical dissection was prohibited, and the practice of medicine was reduced to that of faith cure. All professors who had studied at seats of learning abroad were dismissed. Then it was that the secret societies sprang up in Poland and in the north and south of Russia. One of the foremost conspirators was Pestel, who had undertaken to frame a new code of laws for Russia. When Alexander died, Russia was on the brink of a military revolution. It was the intention of the conspirators to assas- sinate the Czar in the presence of his troops and to pro- 464 1826 NICHOLAS I BECOMES CZAR claim a constitution; but his unexpected departure to the Black Sea frustrated the plan. Alexander's death threw the Rus- sian court into confusion. For a while it was not known who was to succeed him. The supposed heir to the throne was Alexander's brother, Constantine. Unbeknown to the people he had formally renounced his right to the throne. At the time of his brother's death lie was in Warsaw. His younger brother, Nicholas, at St. Petersburg, had him proclaimed Emperor. When they brought him Constantine's written ab- dication, Nicholas refused to acknowledge it and caused the troops to take their oath of allegiance to his brother. Con- stantine in Warsaw proclaimed Nicholas Emperor. IN icholas would not accept the crown unless by the direct command of his elder brother. At length the matter was adjusted, after an interregnum of three weeks. On Christmas Day Nich- olas ascended the imperial throne. The confusion at St. Petersburg was turned to account by the military conspirators who had plotted against Alexander's life. To the common soldiers they denounced Nicholas as a usurper who was try- ing to make them break their recent oath to Constantine. When ordered to take the oath to Nicholas, the Moscow regiment refused, and marched to the open place in front of the Senate House. There they formed a square and were joined by other bodies of mutineering soldiers. It is gravely asserted by Russian historians that the poor wretches, igno- rant of the very meaning of the word constitution, shouted for it, believing it to be the name of Constantine's wife. An attack upon them by the household cavalry was repulsed. When General Miloradovitch, a veteran of fifty-two battles against Napoleon, tried to make himself heard, he was shot by the mutineers. They would not listen even to the Em- peror. Not until evening could the new Czar be brought to use more decisive measures. Then he ordered out the artil- lery and had them fire grape-shot into the square. The effect 465 1826 DEATH OF THE PAINTER DAVID was appalling. In a few minutes the square was cleared and the insurrection was over. Its leaders were wanting at the moment of action. A rising in the south of Russia was quelled by a single regiment. Before the year ended Nich- olas was undisputed master of Russia. By the death of Augustin Jean Fresnel France lost a brilliant scientist, who shares with Thomas Young the honor of discrediting the old emission theory of light, and of for- mulating the undulatory theory. Jacques Louis David, founder of the new French school of classicism in painting, died at the close of the year at Brussels. Mallany of his paintings were on exhibition before the fall of the old r6gime in France. In the days of the French Revolution David was a Jacobite and friend of Robespierre, and suffered in prison after the latter's fall. It was not, however, until the time of the First Empire that David's fame spread. He then reached the zenith of his suc- cess. His masterpieces of this period are "Napoleon Cross- ing the Alps"-a canvas on which is founded Hauff's story of "The Picture of the Emperor"-"The Coronation of Na- poleon," "Napoleon in His Imperial Robes," and the "Dis- tribution of the Eagles." Equally famous is his portrait of "Madame Recamier Resting on a Chaiselongue." After the fall of the First Empire, David was exiled from France, and retired to Brussels. In his declining years he painted sub- jects taken from Grecian mythology. The number of David's pupils who acquired distinction was very great, among whom the best known were Gros, Gerard, Derdranais Girodet, Jugros, Abel de Pujel, and Droming. 466 1825 EVENTS OF 1826 Nicholas I Hangs Insurgent Leaders-Codification of Russian Laws- Russia Invades Persia and Wins Battles of Elizabethpol and the IDjeham-Nicholas I Extorts Autonomy of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia from Turkey-Sultan Massacres Janizaries-Deaths of Ilast- ings and fleber-Notable Events in English Literature-Notable Scientific Inventions and Discoveries-Canning Abolishes Public Lotteries-Louis I of Bavaria Patronizes Great Artists and Authors -lie Beautifies Munich-Pettv German Princes Create Business for Lawyers by Interchange of Provinces-Deaths of Jefferson and Adams on Semi-Centennial of American Independence Great Actors Appear on American Stage-Graft in Loans to Greece Raised in America and England-Aecession of Dom Pedro TV-lTe Grants Constitution to Portugal. and Places His Infant Daughter, Mlaria Gloria, on Its Throne-Portuguese Rising in Favor of Dorn Migiel as King is Suppressed-Spain Gives Comfort to Insurgents-Por- tugal Calls on England for Help-Canning Railroads Through the Required Assistance. RIVEN to assert his rights to the crown by blood- shed, Nicholas I showved himself resolved to main- tain the absolute principles of his throne. He accorded a disdainful pardon to Prince Trubetskoy, whom the conspirators of the capital had chosen as head of the govern- ment. The mass of misled soldiery was likewise treated with clemency. But against the real instigators of the insurrec- tion the Czar proceeded with uncompromising severity. One hundred and twenty were deported to Siberia; and the five foremost men, among whom were Ryleyev, the head of the society in the north, and Pestel, were condemned to be hanged. All died courageously. Pestel's chief concern was for his Code. "I am certain," said he, "that one day Russia will find in this book a refuge against violent commotions. My greatest error was that I wished to gather the harvest be- fore sowing the seed." In a way the teachings of these men gave an impetus to Russia that their death could not destroy. Even the Czar, with his passion for military autocracy, made it his first care to take up the work of codifying the Russian 467 RUSSIAN CONQUEST OF PERSIA laws. Alexis Mikhaielovitch during the next four years turned out his "Complete Code of the Laws of the Russian Empire." The military ambitions of Nicholas found a vent in the direction of Persia. The encroachments of Ermolov, the Governor-General of the Caucasus, so exasperated the Per- sians that soon a holy war was preached against Russia. Eb- bas-Mirza, the Prince Royal of Persia, collected an army of 85,000 men on the banks of the Araxes. A number of En- glish officers joined his ranks. Nicholas at once despatched General Kasevitch with reenforcements for Ermolov. Eb- bas-iMirza was checked on his march on Tivlas by the heroic defence of Choucha. In the meanwhile the Russians con- centrated their forces. The Persian vanguard, 15,000 strong, was defeated at Elizabethpol. On the banks of the Djeham, Paskevitch, with a division of the Russian army, overthrew the main body of the Persians and forced them back over the Araxes. The Persians continued their resistance, relying on the terms of the treaty of Teheran, wherein England had promised financial and military subsidies in case of invasion. The English promise was not kept. Henceforth the Persians were at the mere of the Russian army of invasion. Almost simultaneously a rebellion against the Chinese Government broke out in Kashgar. Undeterred by this diversion, Nich- olas took up a vigorous stand against the Turks. In March he presented an ultimatum insisting on the autonomy of Mol- davia, Wallachia, and Servia, and on the final cession to Russia of disputed Turkish territory on the Asiatic frontier. Turkey yielded. Nicholas then joined in an ultimatum with England and France for an immediate stop of the Turkish outrages in Greece. In this matter Nicholas, who regarded the Greeks as rebels, showed himself more lenient to the Turks, and negotiations with the Porte were permitted to drag. The Sultan profited by the lull to execute a long con- 468 1826 NOTABLE BOOKS AND INVENTIONS templated stroke against the Janizaries. The whole of this famous corps of body-guards was massacred. During this year England lost two men who had distin- guished themselves in India. One was the Marquis of IHast- ings, who had but lately relinquished his Governor-General- ship of British India, and whose rule there both from a mili- tary and from a politico-economical point of view must be regarded as preeminently successful. The other was Regi- nald Heber, the Bishop of Calcutta, who endeared himself to Anglo-Indians by his translations of the folk-songs and classic writings of Hindustan. In other respects this year is notable in English literary annals. Alfred Tennyson pub- lished his earliest verses in conjunction with his brother; Elizabeth Barrett also brought out her first poems; Macaulay had begun to captivate England by his essays; Thomas Hood issued his "Whims and Oddities"; Scott and Coleridge were then in the heyday of literary favor. Scott had just brought out his "Talisman" and "The Betrothed," and now pub- lished "Woodstock." Coleridge contributed his "Aids to Reflection." A new impetus was given to scholarship by the foundation of the Western and Eastern literary institutions of England, and the establishment of a professorship for political economy at Oxford. London University was char- tered. Lieutenant Thomas Drummond perpetuated his name by his limelight, produced by heating lime to incan- descence in the oxy-hydrogen flame. While Herschel was working out his spectrum analysis, Fox Talbot contributed his share by his observation of the orange line of strontium. John Walker perfected his in- vention of friction matches. Industrially, on the contrary, England still suffered from the canker of the corn laws and the recent financial crisis resulting from the operations of ill-fated stock companies. In Lancashire nearly a thousand power looms were destroyed by the distressed operative.. 469 1826 GERMAN DUKES SWAP PROVINCES Some relief was given by Canning's abolition of all public lotteries. In Germany arts and literature flourished in the same degree. King Louis I of Bavaria, upon his accession to the throne. gathered about him in Munich some of the foremost artists and writers of Germany. The capital of Munich was embellished with public monuments; public buildings were decorated with fresco paintings, and art galleries were es- tablished. The University of Bavaria was transferred from Landshut to Munich, and other institutions of learning were erected by its side. Streets were widened, new avenues and public squares laid out, and public lighting introduced throughout the city. Within a short time the quasi-medieval town of Munich was changed into a modern metropolis and became the Mecca of German art. Among the artists who gathered round Louis of Bavaria were Moritz von Schwind, Cornelius, Hess, Raupp, and the elder Piloti. Among the writers who drew upon themselves the notice of this liberal King were the Count of Platen, who during this year pub- lished his "Ghazels" and the comedy "The Fatal Fork"; and Hauff, who brought out his romantic masterpiece, "Lichten- stein." Of the rising writers, Heinrich Heine alone with- stood the blandishments of Louis with verses of biting satire. Little noticed at the time was the appearance of Reichardt's "Wacht am Rhein," a song which was destined to become the battle hymn of Germany. Scant attention, likewise, was given to Froebel's epoch-making work, "The Education of Man." On the other hand much pother was made over some curious exchanges of sovereignty, characteristic of German politics in those days. The Dukes of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha- Meiningen exchanged their respective possessions. Saalfeld Meiningen received Gotha. Altenburg was assigned to Saxe- Hilburghausen, which latter principality in turn was re- linquished to Meiningen. The settlements of the succession 470 1826 DEATHS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON in those petty principalities called forth tomes upon tomes of legal lore. In America the people of the United States commemo- rated the semi-centennial of their independence. The Fourth of July, the date of the declaration of American indepen- dence, was the great day of celebration. The day became noted in American history by the simultaneous death of two patriots: Jefferson and Adams. Thomas Jefferson's greatest achievements, as recorded by himself on his gravestone at Monticello, were his part in the declaration of American in- dependence, in the establishment of religious freedom, and in the foundation of the University of Virginia. He was the most philosophic statesman of his time in America. Much of the subsequent history of the United States was but the development of Jefferson's political ideas. His public acts and declarations foreshadowed the policies of his most worthy successors. The essentials of the Monroe Doctrine, of the emancipation of slaves, as well as of the doctrine of State rights and of American expansion, can all be traced back to him. Thus he has come to be venerated by one of the two great political parties of America as "The Father of Democracy." Jefferson's principles were stated in his first inaugural address: "Equal and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political; peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances with none; the support of the State governments and all their rights as the most competent of administrations for our do- mestic concerns; the preservation of the general government in its whole constitutional vigor, as a sheet-anchor of peace at home and safety abroad. . . . The supremacy of civil over military authority, economy in public expense, honest payment of public debts; the diffusion of information; free- dom of religion; freedom of the press, and freedom of the 471 1826 1826 NOTABLE EVENTS ON AMERICAN STAGE person, under the protection of the habeas corpus and trial by jury." When Jefferson's second term as President came to an end he retired from the White House poorer than he had entered it. A third term was declined by him with these words: "To lay down a public charge at the proper period is as much a duty as to have borne it faithfully. If some termi- nation to the services of a chief magistrate be not fixed by the Constitution or supplied by practice, this office, nominally four years, will in fact become for life; and history shows how easily that degenerates into an inheritance." Together with Washington's similar action, this established a custom which has since been followed in the North American Republic. Jefferson's predecessor, John Adams, who died on the same day, though likewise a model President, was less fortu- nate in his career. His administration was a struggle almost from beginning to end. The troubles with France, though not attaining the dignity of international warfare, presented all the difficulties of such a war. Adams's extreme measures against domestic danger, as embodied in his "alien and sedi- tion laws," were unfortunate. They were in fact an infringe- ment of the rights of free speech and personal liberty, and were with justice denounced as unconstitutional and un- American. His departure from the American Bill of Rights among other things effectually prevented his reelection as President. His wisest closing act was the appointment of John Marshall to the Chief Justiceship of the American Supreme Court. In the annals of the American stage the season of 1826 is remembered for the first appearance of the three great actors Edwin Forrest, MIacready, and James IH. Hackett, the American comedian. The Greek cause found friends in Switzerland, England, and America. Two loans for 14,000,000 were raised in 472 PORTUGAL RECEIVES CONSTITUTION London by American and English subscriptions. Both loans were disgracefully financed. Barely one-half of the amount was finally accounted for. With the proceeds contracts were made for eight warships. The "Perseverance," a steam cor- vette, mounting eight 68-pound cannon, reached Nauplia in September. The "Hope," a stanch frigate of 64 guns, built in New York, arrived in December. She was rechristened the "Hellas." The death of Dom Juan de Braganza in March had placed the throne of Portugal as well as that of Brazil at the disposal of his oldest son, Dom Pedro IV, at Rio. Under the terms of England's mediation of the previous year, Dom Pe- dro renounced the throne of Portugal in favor of his infant daughter, Maria Gloria, while at the same time he conferred upon Portugal a liberal constitution, the so-called Charta de Ley, similar to that conceded to Brazil in 1822. Dom Pedro IV had entrusted the throne of Portugal to the regency of his sister Maria Isabella, on condition that his infant daughter should marry her uncle, Dom Miguel. It was his intention that the infant Princess should be recog- nized as Queen, while Dom Miguel would reign as Regent. Under the leadership of Marquis de Chaves, instigated by Dom Miguel, several provinces revolted and declared for Miguel as absolute King. Conquered in Portugal, the insur- gents retired to Spain, where they were well received. The Portuguese Constitutional Government called for help from England. France threatened to invade Spain. Canning acted at once. "To those who blame the Government for de- lay," declared Canning, "the answer is very short, It was only last Friday that I received the official request from Portugal. On Saturday the Ministers decided what was to be done. On Sundav our decision received the King's sanc- tion. On Mondav it was comnunicated to both Houses. At this very moment the troops are on their way to Portugal." 473 182B EVENTS OF 1827 English Fleet and Army Suppress Portuguese Revolution-Charles X Disbands National Guard of Paris for Demonstration against Jesuits -Russians Advance on Teheran-Anglo-Russian Agreement to In- tervene in Turkish War Wins Secret Cooperation of France and Forces Austria's Compliance-Anthony Clement Forced to Resign Saxon Throne Because of His Catholicism-Frederick Augustus II Becomes Regent-Deaths of Hauff, Laplace, and Beethoven-Turks Defeat Church and Cochrane and Take Athens-Treaty for Euro- pean Intervention in Greece Signed in London-Turkey Rejects Armistice Proposed by Powers-Bulgaria Calls for Russia's Aid- Deaths of Canning, Blake, and Bright-Exhibition of Delacroix's Paintings-Wellington Becomes Prime Minister-Greeks Win Naval Battle of Corinth-Turks Devastate the Morea-Codrington, in Command of Allies' Fleets, Wins Battle of Navarino-Turks Driven from Greece-Sultan Demands Indemnity-European Ambassadors Withdrawn from Constantinople-England Withdraws from Inter- vention in Turkey, Leaving Russia to Bear the Brunt of It. O w N the first day of January an English army corps ( under Clinton was landed at Lisbon, and a squad- ron of eleven British ships of the line came to anchor at the mouth of the Tagus. The news of this foreign inter- vention dismayed the revolutionists. On the banks of the Mondego the Marquis de Chaves, with 10,000 rebels, still commanded the approach to Coimbra. On January 9 a drawn battle was fought with 7,000 constitutional troops under Saldanha. Next morning Dom Miguel's followers, on the news of an approaching British column, quitted the field and dispersed. The Spanish troops on the frontier disarmed those that crossed into Spain. In France the government of Charles X, after some violent attacks in the Chambers, recalled the Swiss brigade sent to protect the royal family in Madrid. There was trou- ble enough at home. The clerical reaction in France brought about a popular outcry against the order of the Jesuits. On the occasion of a royal military review on April 29, some of the companies of the National Guards shared in demon- 474 ANGLO-RUSSIAN INTERVENTION IN EAST strations against them. "I am here,," said the King, "to re- ceive your homage, not your murmurings. The entire Na- tional Guard of Paris was disbanded by royal ordinance. Early in the spring the Russian forces under Paskievitch had crossed the Araxes and forced the defiles of the Persian frontier. By a rapid flank movement an army of 10,000 Per- sians was detached and brought to surrender. Erivan, the bulwark of Persia, was taken by assault. The triumphant Russian column entered Pauris, the second city of the king- dom. Thence an advance was made on Teheran. These easy victories in Persia left the Czar free to re- sume his threatening attitude toward Turkey. In this he re- ceived the hearty support of Canning. A protocol at St. Petersburg, concluded between the Duke of Wellington and Nesselrode, formed the basis for Anglo-Russian intervention in the East. The Royalists of France wrere w-on over by an offer from the Greek insurgents to place the Duke of Nemours on the throne of Greece. Without giving actual support to the proposed intervention the French ambassador in Con- stantinople was instructed to act with his English and Rus- sian colleagues. Under the weight of this combination even Prince Metternich gave way. Affairs in Germany were calculated to excite his alarm. At Dresden the accession of Anthony Clement to the crown of Saxony met with extreme disfavor on the part of the Saxon people by reason of Anthony's pronounced Catholicism. Soon his measures p)rovoked a rising of the people. Anthony had to resign, and Frederick Augustus II became Regent. In Wurtemburg, where public affairs had taken a more liberal turn, the death of Wilhelm Hauff, the young author, was felt as a great loss. Mlauff died in his twenty-fifth year, while still in the first promise of his literary activity. His stories of the Black Woods and his Oriental Tales, to- gether with his medieval romance "Lichtenstein," modeled 475 1827 DEATH OF LAPLACE after the best of Walter Scott's romances, have assured him a prominent place in German letters. On March 15 Marquis Pierre Simon de Laplace, one of the greatest mathematicians and physical astronomers of all time, died at Arcueil. Laplace was born in 1749, in Nor- mandy. Although a poor farmer's son, he soon won the position of a teacher at the Beaumont Military School of Mathematics, and later at the Ecole Militaire of Paris. One of the early notable labors of Laplaee was his investigation of planetary perturbations, and his demonstration that plane- tary mean motions are invariable-the first important step in the establishment of the stability of the solar system and one of the most brilliant achievements in celestial mechanics. In his "Exposition du Systeme du Monde" was formulated the theory called the "nebular hypothesis," the glory of which he must share with Kant. "He would have com- pleted the science of the skies," says Fourier, "had the science been capable of completion." As a physicist he made dis- coveries that were in themselves sufficient to perpetuate his name, in specific heat, capillary action, and sound. In math- ematics he furnished the modern scientist with the famous Laplace coefficients and the potential function, thereby lay- ing the foundation of the mathematical sciences of heat and electricity. Not satisfied with scientific distinction, Laplace aspired to political honors and left a public record which is not altogether to his credit. Of his labors as Minister of the Interior, Napoleon remarked: "He brought into the admin- istration the spirit of the infinitesimals." Although he owed his political success, small as it was, to Napoleon- the man whom he had once heralded as the "pacificator of Eiurope"-he voted for his dethronement. Shortly after the death of Laplace, Ludwig van Bee- thoven died in Vienna on March 26. The last years of his life were so clouded by his deafness and by the distressing 476 182!7 ct 0 This page in the original text is blank. DEATH OF BEETHOVEN8 vagaries of his nephew that lie was often on the verge of suicide. In December, 1826, lie caught a violent cold, which brought on his ultimate death from pneumonia and dropsy. Beethoven, though he adhered to the sonata form of the classic school, introduced into his compositions such daringly original methods that he must be regarded as the first of the great romantic composers. Some of his latest coinposi- tions, notably, were so very unconventional that they found no appreciation, even among musicians, until years after his death. Technically, his art of orchestration reached such a perfection of general unity and elaboration of detail that he must stand as the greatest instrumental composer of the nineteenth century. The profound subjective note that per- vades his best compositions lifts his music above that of his greatest predecessors: Bach, Haydn, and Mozart. It was after the opening of the nineteenth century that Beethoven reached his freest creative period. Between 1800 and 1815 he composed the first six of his great symphonies, the music to "Egmont," the best of his chamber-music pieces, fourteen pianoforte sonatas, among them the "Pastorale" and the "'Appassionata," and his only opera "Fidelio." This opera, which was first named "Leonore," with an overture that was afterward abandoned, had its first public perform- ance in Vienna just before Napoleon's entry into the capital in 1805. After three representations it was withdrawn. Nearly ten years later, after complete revision by Beethoven, "Fidelio" achieved its first great success. The great 'Ero- ica Symphony" composed at the same time was originally dedicated to Bonaparte. When Napoleon had himself pro- claimed Emperor, Beethoven tore up the dedication in a rage. It was subsequently changed 'to the memory of a great man." After 1815, when the composer had grown quite deaf, his compositions, like his mental moods, took on a gloomy cast. XIXth Century-Vol. II-3 477 1827 DEATH OF CANNING By this time a number of foreign volunteers had flocked to Greece. Lord Cochrane, an English naval officer of ven- turous disposition, was appointed High Admiral. Sir Rich- ard Church was put in command of the Greek land forces. Early in May Church and Cochrane sought in vain to break the line of Turks under Kiuitahi Pasha pressing upon Athens. They were defeated with great loss, and on June 5 the Acropolis of Athens surrendered to the Turks. In July a treaty for European intervention in Greece was signed in London. Turkey and Greece were summoned to consent to an armistice, and to accept the mediation of the Powers. All Turks were to leave Greece, and the Greeks were to come into possession of all Turkish property within their limits on payment of an indemnity. Greece was to be made auton- omous under the paramount sovereignty of the Sultan. The demand for an armistice was gladly accepted by Greece. But the Sultan rejected it with contempt. The conduct of the Turkish troops in Bulgaria caused the Bulgarians to rise and call for Russian help. It was at this crisis of European affairs that Canning died. His Ministry, brief as it was, marked an epoch for England. Unlike his predecessors, George Canning was called to the Ministry by a King who disliked him. This freed him from certain concessions to the personal prejudices of his sovereign that hampered other Ministers. Thus he was able to introduce in Parliament his great measure for the removal of the political disabilities of the Catholics, a reform on which so great a Prime Minister as the younger Pitt came to grief. Had this measure passed the House of Lords it would stand as the crowning act of Canning's admin- istration. By an irony of fate the same Canning that so bit- terly opposed the French Revolution and the claims of Amer- ica achieved his highest fame by his latter-day recognition of the rights of revolution in the New World. 478 1827 DEATHS OF BLAKE AND BRIGHT William Blake, the English poet and artist, died at Fountain Court in London on August 12. While Blake's poems and paintings belonged to the eighteenth century, chronologically the spirit of his works, with its extraordinary independence of contemporary fashions, make him a herald of the poetic dawn of the nineteenth century. An engraver by profession and training, Blake began while still very young to apply his technical knowledge to his wholly original system of literary publication. As a poet hie was not only his own illustrator, but his own printer and publisher as well All of Blake's books, with the exception of his "Jerusalem" and "Milton," were issued during the eighteenth century. Blake's artistic faculties seemed to strengthen with advanc- ing life, but his literary powers waned. He produced few more satisfying illustrations than those to the Book of Job, executed late in life. In this year Dr. Richard Bright of London published his famous "Reports of medical cases with a view to illustrate the symptoms and cure of diseases by a reference to morbid anatomy." A special feature of the book was a full descrip- tion of Bright's discoveries in the pathology of the peculiar disease of the kidneys which bears his name. Bright, in re- sponse to urgent demands, lectured more fully on his great discovery before the London College of Physicians and Surgeons. Eugene Delacroix, the great exponent of French roman- tic art, and a pupil of Guerin. exhibited this year his "Christ in the Garden of Olives." le had previously exhibited "Dante and Virgil," which created a sensation by its rich coloring. This was followed by his "_Massacre of Scio," "'The Death of the Doge," "Marino Faliero," "'Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi." and "Death of Sardanapalus." Not until some time after his death was he recognized as the greatest early master of the French art after David. 479 1827 WELLINGTON BECOMES PREMIER After the brief interregnum of Goderich's administration in England, Canning was succeeded by his rival, the Duke of Wellington. The good sense and great renown of this distinguished soldier promised strength and prestige to his administration. For a while the change of Ministry brought no avowed change in Canning's plans. Huskisson and Palm- erston were retained in the Cabinet, and Canning's policy of active intervention in Greece was upheld. In consequence of the Turkish refusal of mediation the war continued on both sides. The Turks got heavy reenforcements from Egypt, and a strong expedition was on the point of leaving Navarino to make a descent upon Hydra, the last stronghold of the insurrection. An Anglo-French fleet under Admirals Codrington and Regnier made a demonstration in Greek waters. The foreign admirals exacted a promise from Ibra- him that he would make no movement until further orders should arrive from Constantinople. An oral agreement to this effect was reached late in September. A few days later the Greeks, in free continuance of hostilities, won a brilliant naval victory in the Gulf of Corinth. The hero on this oc- casion was Captain Hastings, an English volunteer. Ibrahim was so incensed that he sailed out of Navarino and made for Patras. Codrington threw his British squadron across the track of the Egyptian ships and forced them to turn back by a threat to sink them. It was regretted at the time that Codrington did not compel Ibrahim to take his expedition out of Greek waters back to Alexandria. As it was, Ibrahim returned to Navarino, and there found orders from the Sul- tan to carry on the war without regard to Western inter- meddling. Another Turkish column was forthwith de- spatched into the Morea and devastated that country with fire and sword. Clouds of smoke revealed to the European naval officers how the Turks had met their proposals for peace. Admiral Codrington sent messages to Ibrahim, call- 46 1827 BATTLE OF NAVARINO ing for instant cessation of hostilities, for the evacuation of the Morea, and the return of his fleet to Constantinople and Alexandria. The answer to this message was that Ibrahim had marched into the Morea and could not be reached. The three squadrons of England, Russia, and France cruising off Zante immediately came together. They consisted of 29 vessels: 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, 4 barges, and 5 schooners. United in one column, under command of Cod- rington as senior admiral, they sailed for Kavarino. Codrington was unhampered by instructions. He could feel sure of the support of his Government, however, for in his pocket was a confidential note from the Duke of Clar- ence, the royal commander of the navy, encouraging him to "find" a quarrel with the Turkish admiral. On October 20 the three squadrons sailed into Navarino harbor in battle array, and came to anchor within pistol-shot of the Turkish fleet, composed of 70 warships, 40 transports, and 4 fire-ships, anchored under cover of the land batteries. To windward of the British corvette "Dartmouth" lay a Turkish brulote or fire-ship. A gig was sent to demand the withdrawal of this dangerous vesseL The Turks fired on the boat with cannon-shot and musketry. When Codrington sent a boat to the Egyptian flagship, Moharem Bey, the ad- miral, opened with his guns. One shot struck the "Asia," Codrington's flagship, and his pilot was killed. Codrington opened with all his guns. The British broadsides soon re- duced the Egyptian flagship on one side and a Turkish man-o' -war on the other side to mere wrecks. The French and Russians joined in. The Moslem ships, which had a superiority of 800 guns, replied with spirit. At close range they fought the combined fleets of their hated Christian ad- versaries. From the surrounding shores 20,000 Moslem sol- diers discharged their guns into the landlocked harbor. The fight lasted from three in the afternoon until seven in the 481 1827 MAIMOUD'S BLIND FURY evening. All bravery was in vain when pitted against West- ern seamanship and gunnery. In the course of a short afternoon one Turkish ship after another was sunk or blown to pieces. By sundown little was left of the Turkish fleet but a mass of wreckage. Only fifteen ships escaped, to be scut- tled by their own sailors. Four thousand Moslem seamen lost their lives. All night long the Turkish gunners on shore kept up their fire. On the morrow, when Ibrahim re- turned to Navarino, he found the waters of the harbor strewn with wreckage and the floating bodies of his sailors. One of the best accounts of the battle of Navarino has been given by Eugene Sue, the novelist, who then served as surgeon on one of the French vessels. The island of Hydra and with it all Greece was saved. The subsequent course of Sultan Mlahmoud was that of blind infatuation and fury. So far from accepting the European demands for an armistice, he put forward a peremptory re- quest for an indemnity for the losses inflicted upon him. The Ambassadors of the Powers quitted Constantinople. It was then that the loss of Canning was felt in England. Instead of pursuing the vigorous policy to which it stood committed by the battle of Navarino, Great Britain hung back. Further intervention, with the profits accruing there- from, was left to Russia. 482 1827 EVENTS OF 1828 Persia Cedes Provinces and Gives Indemnity to Russia-Chinese Em- peror Prohibits England's Opium Trade Greeks Elect Capodistria.s President-Hle Inaugurates Many Reforms-Secret Agreement of Russia and France to Hold Austria in Check-Sultan Proclaims Holy War against Russia-Russians Overrun Roumania-They Cap- ture Erzeroum in Asia Minor-Are Defeated at Shumla in the Balkans -Turks Surrender Varna-French Forces Compel Turks to Evac- uato the Morea-French Liberals Combine with Factious Royalists and Defeat Ministry-They Force Suppression of Jesuit Schools- Revolutions and Counter-Revolutions in South America-Mitre's Resum6 of Fate of Revolutionists-Congress Enacts High Tariff- This Leads to Discussions Upon State Sovereignty-Georgia Deports Indians to Indian Territory-Boundary Question with England Set- tled by Arbitration-First Railroad in America Begun-Other In- dustrial Improvements and Inventions-Progress of American Art and Literature-Death of Schubert-On Withdrawal of British Troops from Portugal Dom Miguel Seizes Throne He Establishes His Autocracy by Dissolving the Ancient Estates-Wellington Ex- pels Huskisson from Cabinet for Propositions of Reform in Parlia- mentary Representation-O'Connell Makes Catholic Emancipation a Crucial Issue by Standing for Parliament, Though Disqualified to Serve by His Catholicism-He is Elected-As a Result Peel Advo- cates the Cause and Resigns from Cabinet-To Retain Him Well- ington Concedes Catholic Emancipation. HE time for undisturbed intervention in the East was most auspicious for Russia. Peace with Per- sia was concluded early in the year. By the treaty of Tourkmanchay, Fet Aly of Persia ceded to Russia the provinces of Erivan and Nakhitchevan and paid an indem- nity of 20,000,000 rubles. The river Araxes was recog- nized as the frontier of both States. England's ascendency in Persia was effectually set at naught. Even in China Emperor Taouk-Wang felt encouraged to issue edicts pro- hibiting England's pernicious opium trade on the Chinese coast. Russia's armies were now let loose on Turkev. In the meanwhile the Greeks profited by the Turkish check at Navarino to assert themselves as an independent people. On January 18 Capodistrias, the former Prime Minister of Russia, was summoned from Geneva and made 483 SUS LTAN PROCLAIMS HOLY WAR President of the Greek Republic. His term of office was to last seven years. This eminent statesman justified his selec- tion by immediate beneficent measures. A grand council of state was established and a national bank opened in Athens. With the help of France, immunity from further incursions from the Turks was practically assured. To pre- serve the status quo in Greece, Russia undertook to limit its single-handed war on Turkey to operations on the mainland and in the Black Sea. Within the waters of the Mediterra- nean the Czar proposed to continue as an armed neutral in harmony with the other Powers under the treaty of Lon- don, and, to allay the apprehensions of Austria, the Russian forces in the Balkans were ordered to carry their line of operations as far as possible from Austria's sphere of influ- ence. A still more effectual check on Austria was secured by the Czar's secret encouragement of French aspirations toward the Rhine. Charles X exposed the plot when he said: "If the Czar attacks Austria, I will hold myself in reserve and regulate my conduct according to circumstances. if Austria attacks, I will instantly march against her." As Prince Metternich put it: "The two Powers were at one: France against the European status quo; Russia against that of the Orient." Although the recent Turkish concessions to Russia left to the Czar no ground for war, a pretext was supplied by Sultan Mahmoud himself. With true Turkish infatuation he chose this moment to issue a direct challenge to Russia. The Czar was denounced as the instigator of the Greek re- bellion, and the arch enemy of Islam. The treaty of Aker- man was declared null and void. A holy war was proclaimed against the Muscovites. All Christians were expelled from Constantinople. Unfortunately for the Sultan, his recent massacre of the Janizaries deprived him of the flower of his troops, and the reorganization of the Turkish army, which 484 1828 MISTAKES OF RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN was the motive of that act, was only under way. For seven years the Russians had been preparing for this war. Nich- olas lost no time in answering the Sultan's challenge. He replied with a declaration of war on April 2o. Field Mar- shal Wittgenstein crossed the Pruth, while Paskievitch en- tered Asia Minor. The Russian troops overran the Rouma- nian provinces, Wallachia and Moldavia. The Danube was crossed early in June, under the eyes of the Czar. Unable to meet their enemy in the open -ield, the Turks withdrew into their strongholds, Ibraila and Silistria on the Danube, Varna and Shuntla in the Balkans. The Russians besieged and stormed ibraila, and thence pushed on through the Du- brudsha toward the Black Sea. In the meanwhile Paskie- vitch in Asia Minor defeated two Turkish armies and cap- tured Erzeroum. After these early successes the Russian operations began to lag. The Czar's presence at headquarters was a source of embarrassment rather than of strength. Wittgenstein committed the error of dividing his army into three slender columns. Too weak to conduct forward operations, they were held in check before Silistria, V arna, and Shumla. The Russian transport service, none too good at best, col- lapsed under the threefold strain. The ill-fed soldiers wasted away by thousands. At length Homer Brionis, the commandant of Shumla, took advantage of the weakness of his besiegers. On September 24 he broke out of Shumla and marched to the relief of Varna. The Czar, notwithstanding the evident weakness of his troops, ordered his cousin, Eu- gene of Wurtemburg, to check the Turkish advance with a frontal attack. The result -was a severe defeat for the Rus- sians. Had Brionis marched onward Varna would have been relieved. He clung to Shumla, however, and the Turks at Varna were forced to surrender. It was late in autumn now, and cold weather put a stop to the campaign for the year. 485 1828 LIBERAL ASCENDENCY IN FRANCE The display of military weakness seriously injured the pres- tige of Russia. The manifold mistakes of this campaign have been unsparingly laid bare in a famous monograph of Moltke. Henceforth the successful prosecution of the war became a sine qua non for Russia. During the progress of these events French forces were landed in Greece. They occupied Navarino, Patras, and Modon. The Turks gave in and consented to evacuate the Morea. In France the ultra-royalist measures of Charles X gave rise to an ever-growing spirit of dissatisfaction. The death of Manuel, the outcast of the Chambers, was made the occasion of a great public demonstration. The coalition of Liberals with a faction of Royalists opposed to the Ministry had a brilliant triumph. Villde's Cabinet offered to resign. Instead of that, the King placed Martignac above him. "You are deserting M. Villele," said the Princess Royal to the King. "It is your first step downward from the throne." The Duc de Broglie wrote: "Should we succeed, after the fall of the present Ministry, in getting through the year tran- quilly, it will be a triumphant success." By way of conces- sion to the Liberals, a royal edict suppressed all the educa- tional institutions maintained by the Society of Jesus. The effect of this measure was offset later in the year by renewed imprisonment and a heavy fine inflicted upon B6ranger for writing political songs. Latin attempts at parliamentary government in Amer- ica were productive of even more discouraging results. In the Argentine Republic the army, after defeating the Bra- zilians, was led against its own Government by General La- valle. The administration was overturned and President Dorrego was shot General Rosas became the leader of the Federalist forces and took the field against the Revolution- ists. In Chile the different parties contending for the gov- erniment patched up a precarious peace which was not des- 486 1828 MITRt ON SOUTH AMERICAN PATRIOTS tined to last long. In Colombia, the Nueva Granada of the Spaniards, a new proclamation of dictatorial powers was issued by Bolivar on February 10. Soon afterward an in- surrection broke out against him, led bv Peadella. Scarcely had this uprising been quelled when an attempt was made to kill Bolivar at his seat of government. Henceforth the history of Latin America degenerated into an endless se- ries of revolutions and counter-revolutions. The only real strength supplied to the various republican governments, so called, was that derived from strong personal characters, yielding one-man power. General Mlitre, the great states- man and historian of South America, has drawn up this striking r6sum6 of the fate of the foremost leaders of Span- ish-American revolutions. Their story is the quintessence of the subsequent turbulent career of Latin America during the nineteenth century: "The first revolutionists of La Paz and of Quito died on the scaffold. Miranda, the apostle of liberty, betrayed by his own people, died, alone and naked, in a dungeon. Moreno, the priest of the Argentine revolution, and the teacher of the democratic idea, died at sea, and found a grave in the ocean. Hidalgo, the first popular leader of Mexico, was executed as a criminal. Belgrano, the first champion of Argentine independence, who saved the revolution, died obscurely, while civil war raged around him. O'Higgins, the hero of Chile, died in exile, as Carrera, his rival, had done before him. Iturbide, the real liberator of lMexico, died a victim to his own ambition. Montufar, the leader of the revolution at Quito, and his comrade Villavicencio, the promoter of that of Cartagena, were strangled. The first presidents of New Granada, Lozano and Torres, fell sacrifices to colonial terror- ism. Piar, who found the true base for the insurrection in Colombia, was shot by Bolivar, to whom he had shown the way to victory. Rivadavia, the civil genius of South Amer- 487 1828 TARIFF SPLITS UNION IN TWO ica, who gave form to her representative institutions, died in exile. Sucre, the conqueror of Ayacucho, was murdered by his own men on a lonely road. Bolivar and San Martin died in exile." In North America the radical issues between the North- ern and Southern States produced ever more dissensions and discord. The question of State sovereignty was prominent in the discussion of the tariff law of 1828, and assumed more and more a sectional aspect. The North had grown rich and prosperous; when under free trade her energies were di- rected to agriculture and commerce. This was the more emphasized when, under a protective policy, her labor and ber capital were devoted to the development of manufactures. The Southern States had originally desired a protective pol- icy for their own supposed advantage; now they demanded free trade for the same reason. But the North had put much money into manufactures, and therefore demanded that Con- gress, which had placed her in this position, should protect her in it. So the tariff of 1828, the highest adopted in the United States up to that time, was a more comprehensive measure than any which preceded it, and was adjusted throughout to encourage Northern industry. New England was largely at one on this subject, and the Middle and West- ern States were practically united. Thus it became a ques- tion of party politics. From the tariff of 1828 dates a new era in American Federal legislation. The division between the North and the South began. Led by Daniel Webster, the New England States became advocates of the protective sys- tem. The question, P2rom being a national issue, became distinctly sectional. State sovereignty was the most important problem that presented itself during John Quincy Adams's administration. The trouble with the Creek and Cherokee Indians in Geor- gia brought this issue to the front. These tribes were now 488 1828 IMPROVEMENTS A-ND INWENTIONS partially civilized, and were tilling their lands in content- ment. Although they held their lands under treaty with the United States, Georgia sought to eject them. Instead of protecting the Indians the National Government allowed Georgia to have its way and sent them to the Indian Terri- tory. Thus was an individual State permitted to act in de- fiance of the National Government. In other respects, it was a year of great prosperity and progress for the United States. The differences with Brit- ish North America in regard to boundaries and to the pro- posed joint settlement of Oregon were amicably settled by arbitration. The question of indemnities arising out of the differences with England was likewise satisfactorily adjusted England's recent introduction of railroads was eagerly fol- lowed up in America. The rails of the first American steam road were laid at Baltimore. They were made of wood cov- ered with iron bars. At Baltimore, too, the manufacture of fire bricks was begun. Boston harbor beheld its first steamboat. The new canal between Providence and Worces- ter was opened and produced an instant increase of traffic for New England. In the other Eastern States factories grew in number and new processes were introduced. Thus, the first varnish made in America was produced at New York. Damask table linen was manufactured at Pittsburg. The first straw paper was turned out at Meadville, Penn- sylvania. The planing mill was introduced. The Franklin Institute at Philadelphia awarded to Stephen Boyden of Newark the premium for his malleable castings. Arts and lit- erature likewise flourished. Among the new paintings ex- hibited during this year in America were Inman's portrait of H1alleck, Stuart's "Jared Sparks," Greenough's "Chanting Cherubs," Dunlap's "Calvary," and Thomas Cole's "Garden of Eden." At Boston the first lithographic press was estab- lished. Noah Webster published his dictionary. Fenimore 489 1828 DEATH OF SCHUBERT Cooper brought out his American romances, "The Prairie" and "Red Rover"; while Richard H. Dana published his "Buccaneer." A book of singular fruition was Joseph Smith's "Book of Mormon," a corrupted version of Spaul- ding's "The Manuscript Found." About the same time Wergeland in Norway published his tragedy, "Sinclair's Death. " In Germany the appearance of the "Book of Songs" instantly raised Heine to the fore- most rank among German lyric poets. Franz Schubert, the foremost song composer, just before his death found inspi- ration in Heine's poems for his famous "Swan Song." Schubert died in Vienna on the 19th of October, at the age of thirty-one. Notwithstanding his brief career and lack of systematic schooling, he was one of the most prolific as well as original of German composers. His earliest ex- tant song, "Hagar's Lament," was written at the age of four- teen. Such earlv master-works as "Margaret at the Spin- ning Wheel," and the "Erl-King," both written for Goethe's words, mark the swift development of his genius. During his eighteenth year, when he wrote the "Erl-King," he com- posed no less than 144 songs. Schubert achieved immortal fame as the creator of the modern lyric song. No less origi- nal were his transfers of the song motive to pianoforte music, as shown in his "MNoments Musicales" and "Impromptus." Some of his symphonies, notably that in C and the "Frag- ment" in B minor, are equal to those of Beethoven. Toward the end of the year the disorders in Portugal appeared to have subsided sufficiently to warrant the with- drawal of the British troops. Dom Miguel, the Regent, promptly proclaimed himself King. After having grasped the reins of power, one of his first measures was the dissolu- tion of the seven ancient estates of Portugal. In Spain King Ferdinand VII, in December, celebrated his wedding to Maria Christina of N aples. 490 1828 PEEL IS CONVERTED TO REFORM BILL In England Huskisson's stand on the rotten borough ques- tion had caused his expulsion from the Cabinet. The former members of the Canning Cabinet all resigned. Among those chosen to supply their place was Vesey Fitzgerald, member for County Clare in Ireland. His acceptance of office compelled him to go back to his constituents. It was then that Daniel O'Connell, the great leader of the Catholic Association in Ireland, saw his chance to strike a blow for Catholic emancipation. Though disqualified from sitting in the Commons as a Catholic, O'Connell ran against Fitzger- ald. From the first Fitzgerald's cause was hopeless. The great landowners, to be sure, supported his cause with all their wealth and influence, but the small freeholders, to a man, voted against him. After a five-days' poll, Fitzgerald withdrew from the contest. The result was that the hitherto irresistible influence of England's territorial aristocracy lay shattered. The Protestant Conservatives of England were filled with consternation. Every debate in Parliament showed that the Catholic party was daily gaining strength, while the resistance of the Government became weaker. It was clear that something must be done. At this crisis Rob- ert Peel, hitherto the champion of the Protestant party in the House of Commons and Cabinet, became convinced of the necessity of yielding. He lost no time in imparting this conviction to the Duke of Wellington, his chief, and there- with offered his resignation. Wellington had learned a les- son from the events that followed Huskisson's withdrawal. He refused to let Peel go: Reluctantly he became a party to Peel's change of views, and before the year closed, armed with the arguments of Peel, he wrung from the King the Crown's consent to concede Catholic emancipation without delay. Peel, as the author of this radical measure, consented to take charge of the bill in Parliament. 491 1828 EVENTS OF 1829 Catholic Emancipation Bill is Passed by Aid of the Whigs-Bentinck, Governor-General of India, Abolishes the Suttee and Suppresses the Thugs-England and Austria Join to Block Russia's Designs on Constantinople-Deaths of Davy and Young-Russians Win Battle of Kulevtcha and Take Adrianople-England and Austria Inter- vene Treaty of Adrianople Gives Russia Protectorate Over Danu- bian Principalities-Black Sea and Bosphorus Opened to Interna- tional Navigation-Polignac's Ministry in France Encroaches on Liberty of the People-Government Tries to Distract Public Atten- tion by Expedition against Algiers-Deaths of Barras, Karl Schlegel, and Leo XII-Accession of Pius VIII-Jackson Becomes President -Inaugurates Spoils System-Establishes "Kitchen Cabinet" of Unofficial Advisers-Vetoes Many Bills-Cabinet Resigns-Georgia and South Carolina Oppose New Tariff with Nullification Doctrine -Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Opened and Many Canals-Literary Events-In England Gurney Establishes First Steam Automobile Service-Death of Lamarck. T the opening of Parliament in England the con- A;\ cessions of the Government in regard to Catholic emancipation were revealed in the royal speech, delivered by commission. The great Tory party, thus taken unawares, was furious. The Protestant clergy opposed the bill with all their influence and clamored for a dissolution of Parliament. In the excited state of public feeling, an immediate appeal to the country would undoubtedly have wrecked the bill. Unable to carry out such a plan, the Tory opposition showed itself ready to unite with any party in order to defeat the measure and wreak vengeance on its framers. Within the Cabinet itself Wellington's change brought him bitter opposition. The Attorney-General, Sir C. Wetherell, refused to draw the bill, and, when the bill was brought up in Mlarch, spoke against it, criticizing the "per- fidv" of his associates. Of course he was at once dismissed. But an opportunity to avenge his dismissal was soon afforded. Robert Peel, since he was not suffered to with- draw from the Ministry, felt in honor bound to go back to his constituents at Oxford. The Protestant party that had sent 492 DEATHS OF DAVY AND YOUNG him to Parliament now opposed him with a simple country gentleman, in no wise his Parliamentary equal. Peel was crushingly defeated. On the other hand, the Whig party almost in a body went over to the Government. With their help, the Catholic Emancipation Act was passed. The Tories waited only for the time to strike down their former leaders. The precarious position of Wellington's Ministry at home was offset by a firm policy abroad. In British India the new Governor-General, Lord Bentinck, upheld British pres- tige by his firm abolition of the native custom of burning widows and by his extermination of the roving gangs of Thugs. In regard to the Eastern Question and the war in the Balkans, England came to an agreement with Austria to frustrate Russia's plans with respect to Constantinople. Thanks to this entente cordale between the two countries, enterprising English capitalists and engineers were allowed to put into operation the first line of steamboats that plied the waters of the Danube. Among other minor events of interest to Englishmen during this year may be mentioned the first public appearance of Fanny Kemble, the actress, and the earliest boat race between student crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. England lost two of her famous scientists during this year-Sir Humphrir Davy and Thomas Young. Davy was born in 1778 and died in Geneva. Besides inventing the miner's safety lamp, with which his name will be forever associated, he made valuable experiments in photography; discovered that the causes of chemical and electrical attraction are identical; produced potassium and sodium by the electric current; proved the transformation of energy into heat; formulated a theory of the properties of particles of matter (or atoms); and made remarkable experiments which led to the theory of the binary composition of chemical compounds. Young was born in 1773. At Cambridge they called him "Phenomenon Young," 493 1829 BATTLE OF KULEVTCHA because he was said to know everything. In truth, Young developed into the most profound English scientist of the century. When only twenty he was asked to read papers before the Royal Society. In 1801 he delivered the Bakerian lecture, his subject being "The Theory of Light and Colors." That lecture marks an epoch in physical science; for it brought forward for teie first time convincing proof of the correctness of the undulatory theory of light. The intangible substance which pulsates and undulates to produce light Young christened the "hlinminiferous ether." And the term is still to be found in our scientific vocabulary. In the Balkans Russia's war with Turkey was waged with vigor. The winter months had been spent in bringing up reserves. The Czar withdrew from interference at head- quarters, and Wittgenstein was superseded by General Die- bitsch, a trained Prussian soldier. This general made prep- arations to cross the Balkans as soon as Silistria should have fallen, without waiting for the fall of Shumla. On the other side of the Balkans the Russian fleet made a diversion so as to prepare the way for joining forces on the banks of the Black Sea. In accordance with these plans Diebitsch sent a strong force against Silistria. Before anything had been effected in front of Silistria, Reshid Pasha, the Turkish Grand Vizier, moved eastward from Shumla and took the field against the weak Russian forces at Varna. He lost time, however, and suffered himself to be held at bay by the Rus- sians. Diebitsch hurried across Bulgaria in forced marches. Coming up in Reshid's rear he could either fall upon Shumla or force the Turks to open battle. He chose the lat- ter course. The Turks, harried in their rear, attempted to regain the roads to Shumla. On June 10 the two forces met in a pitched battle at Kulevtcha. Reshid was badly de- feated, losing 5,000 men and forty-three guns, but made good his retreat to Shumla. Diebitsch had to lay siege to Shumla. 494 1829 TREATY OF ADRIANOPLE Soon after this Silistria fell into the hands of the Russians. Turning Varna over to the Bulgarians, and leaving a block- ading force before Shumla, Diebitsch boldly crossed the Balkans. The resistance of the Turks was wveak. On Au- gust 19 the Russians appeared before Adrianople. In the Black Sea the Russian frigate "Mercury" defeated two Turkish men-of-war. The Turks were seized with terror. Adrianople surrendered without a blow. In the Morea the Turks evacuated Tripolitza and Missolonghi and acknowl- edged the independence of Greece. The ports of the Black Sea, almost as far south as the Bosphorus, fell into Russian hands. Flying columns of the Russian army penetrated down to the SEgean coast and as far as the Euxine. Yet the Russians were so weak in numbers that anything like deter- mined resistance could easily have checked them. As it was, all Turkish resistance collapsed before the Russian onward march toward Constantinople. The Sultan appealed to the Powers for help. England and Austria intervened, and peace was forced upon Russia. The treaty of Adrianople, signed on September 14, confirmed to Russia its protectorate over the Danubian principalities. No Mussulman was to be permitted to stay within the principalities, and all Turk- ish lands were to be sold within eighteen months. No forti- fied point on the left bank of the Danube was left to Turkey. Territory in Asia was ceded to Russia, as well as the ports of Poti and Anapa on the Black Sea. The waters of this sea were thrown open to international navigation; and the straits of Constantinople and the Dardanelles were declared open to the merchant ships of all Powers at peace with the Porte. The payment of a money indemnity of 2,000,000 rubles to Russia was deferred, thus leaving to Russia the means for exerting pressure on the Yildiz Kiosk. Russia's acceptance of foreign mediation at Adrianople brought disappointment to France. Reverting to Napoleonic 4 I 5 1829 DEATH OF BARRAS ambitions, King Charles's Ministers had proposed a partition of the Ottoman Empire on the basis of a general rearrange- ment of Europe. Russia was to have the Danubian prov- inces near the Austrian Empire, Bosnia and Servia; Prussia was to have Saxony and Holland; Belgium and the Rhine provinces were to fall to France, and the King of Holland was to be installed in the Sultan's Divan at Constantinople. It was a chimerical project, which it was hoped might avert the impending troubles at home by dazzling acquisitions abroad. A formidable majority had been raised up against the Government by its persistent encroachments upon the freedom of speech and of the press. Martignac's Ministry resigned and Prince Polignac, a crony of the King, was put in his place. Societies were formed throughout France to refuse the payment of taxes should the Government attempt to raise them without the consent of the Chambers. In the face of this growing popular opposition, the King and his Minister resolved to prepare an expedition against Algiers. As Guizot put it: "They hope to get rid of their difficulties through conquest abroad and a resulting majority at home." The death of Barras about this time served to revive revolu- tionary, memories in France. Paul Frangois Jean Nicholas, Count de Barras, was one of the first five Directors of the French Republic. He cruelly executed many Royalists at the capture of Toulon in 1793. lHe was the chief of the conspirators who triumphed over Robespierre in 1794. As commander of the National Guard, in October, 1795, with Bonaparte, he defeated the Parisian insurgents, and was therefore chosen a member of the Directory. He served in this body as its leading spirit until its suppression by Napoleon in 1799. This act closed his political career. In Germany there died during the year Karl Friedrich Wilhelm von Schlegel, brother of August Wilhelm, the poet. 496 1829 JACKSON ELECTED PRESIDENT In 1803 he joined the Roman Church, and several vears later was appointed an imperial secretary at Vienna. Be- sides his published lectures, Schlegel's chief works are: "His- tory of the Old and New Literature" (1815), "Philosophies of Life" (1828), "Philosophy of History" (1829), and the posthumous work, "Philosophy of Language." His wife, a daughter of Moses Mendelssohn, was the author of several works published under Schlegel's name. During the year Pope Leo XII died and was succeeded by Pius VIII. In the United States of North America John Qtiincy Adams was succeeded by Andrew Jackson. Calhoun was reelected Vice-President. A motley crowd of backwoodsmen and mountaineers, who had supported Jackson, crushed into the White House shouting for "Old Hickory." For the first time the outgoing President absented himself from the in- auguration of his successor. He had remained at his desk until midnight of the previous day signing appointments which would deprive Jackson of so much more patronage. Jackson took his revenge by the instant removal of 167 politi- cal opponents. His remark, "To the victors belong the spoils," became a byword of American politics. The system of rota- tion in office dates from his administration. Jackson's first Cabinet was headed by Van Buren. The President also encouraged a set of confidential advisers, who came to be known as the "Kitchen Cabinet." The regular members of the Cabinet were treated as mere head clerks. In one week Jackson vetoed more bills than any of his pred- ecessors had done in four vears. Other bills he held back until after the adjournment of Congress, and then failed to sign them. The bills remained, as it were, in the President's pocket. This new method of vetoing became notorious as the "Pocket Veto." In other respects Jackson's first administra- tion was stormy. International relations were repeatedly threatened by the long-standing controversy over the indem- 497 1829 THE ROMANCE OF PEGGY O'NEILL nity for French spoliations. An adjustment of the indem- nity claims with Denmark was likewise forced to an issue. At home Jackson's abandonment of the principle of extreme protection and his hostility to the United States Bank lost him the support of the loose constructionists. As a Free- mason, the President was likewise opposed by the new anti- Masonic party in politics. In a quarrel over the character of the wife of Secretary Eaton, the beautiful Peggy O'Neill, all Washington was involved. It was commonly believed that the subsequent break-up of Jackson's Cabinet was caused by the social bickerings among the wives of the members. Van Buren was the first to resign. Soon he was appointed Min- ister to England, but the Senate rejected him through the vote of Vice-President Calhoun. Jackson afterward took his revenge by defeating Calhoun's aspirations to the Presidency through Van Buren. By reason of the new protective tariff, the States of Georgia and South Carolina, toward the close of 1829, returning to the Kentucky resolutions of 1799, affirmed the right of any State to declare null and void any act of Congress which the State Legislature deemed uncon- stitutional. The industrial progress of the United States was little affected by the political dissensions during Jackson's first Presidential year. On July 4 the Baltimore and Ohio Rail- road was opened. The first trip of an American locomotive was made on the Carbondale and Honesdale road. Through- out the country many canals were opened; to wit, the Dela- ware and Chesapeake Canal, the Delaware and Hudson, and the Oswego in New York; the Farmington in Connecticut, and the Cumberland and Oxford Canal in Maine. Among the literary productions of the year were a collection of minor poems by Edgar Allan Poe, Parkinan's earlier essays, Coop- er's "Wept of the Wish-ton-Wish," Sparks's "John Ledyard," and Washington Irving's "Granada." 498 1829 GURNEY'S STEAM OMNIBUS In England the first successful experiments with steam- propelled stage-coaches were made by Sir Goldsworth Gur- ney. These machines were the precursors of the latter-day automobile vehicle. To have assisted at the experiment of Gurney's steam carriage was, in those days, almost a title to glory. These carriages became speedily one of the curiosities of London. Foreign travelers who printed accounts of their journeys did not fail to devote a chapter to the new means of locomotion. Jobard, the Belgian savant and economist, was of the number, and so were Cuchette, St. Germain Leduc, and C. G. Simon, three prominent scientific writers of that time. Jobard's impressions noted down at the time are worthy of record: "My first visit in England was to the start- ing station of Sir Goldsworth Gurney's steam omnibus, run- ning between London and Bath. This carriage does not differ materially from other stage-coaches, nor has it had any serious mishap as vet. For my benefit it manceuvred back and forth over the street pavement and later on the smooth macadam of the highway, without any apparent difficulties of guiding. The drivers of other stage-coaches are agreed that the thing is a success, and that before long it will do them much harm." However, the great interest in railroads side-tracked for many years both the commercial and mechanical development of the automobile idea. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck, a forerunner of Charles Dar- win, died in this year. As early as 1801 Lamarck had out- lined his ideas of the transmutation of species and attempted to explain the manner in which that transmutation had been brought about. There is no such thing as a "species," he held; there are only individuals descended from a common stock and modified in structure to suit their environment. Lamarek was scoffed at in his own time; he was respected as a naturalist, but unrecognized as a prophet. 499 1829 EVENTS OF 1830 Invention of the Sewing Machine, and of Raised Letters for the Blind -Deaths of Lawrence, the Painter, and of Lister, Inventor of the Compound Microscope-French Conquer Algiers-H-ugo's "Hernani" Creates a Literary Revolution-Charles X Dissolves the Chambers -Parisians Rise and Build Barricades-During the "Great Week" Troops Go Over to Revolutionists-Charles X is Deposed-He Goes into Exile in England-Duke of Orleans is Chosen Constitutional Monarch under Name of Louis Philippe-Clerical and Royalist Influences are Obliterated-The Bourgeoisie is in the Saddle-Revo- lutionists Gain the Independence of Belgium-Talleyrand as Envoy to England Prevents Intervention of Powers in Belgian Affairs- Greece's Throne Goes Begzing-Revolution Breaks Out in Poland- Polish Diet Renounces Rule of the Czar-Ferdinand's Abolition of Salic Law in Spain to Secure Throne to His Wife Causes His Brothers to Lead a Revolution-Bolivar Plans a Pan-American Congress-Is Rebuffed, Resigns Office, and Dies-Van Diemen's Land Separates from New South Wales-Growth of Nullification Doctrine in America Leads to Great Debate Between Hayne and Webster-Repeal of Prohibitory Shipping Acts Starts Trade with British West lndies-O'Connell Agitates for Repeal of Union of Ireland with Great Britain-He is Prosecuted for Treason-Crown Successfully Exerts Its Influence against Wellington's Ministry- Succeeding Ministry of Lord Grey is Weakened by His Nepotism. ARLY in the year Bartholemy Thimonnier, a French tailor, took out a patent for his invention of a sewing machine. Thimonnier's device was a chain-stitch sew- ing machine worked with it treadle. It had taken the inven- tor, ignorant as he was of mechanics, four years of painful application to perfect it. The first to recognize the real value of the invention was M. Beunier, supervisor of mines at Paris. He took Thimonnier to Paris and installed him as a partner and manager of a large clothing firm that manu- factured army uniforms. They set up eighty machines and did so well with them that the workmen of Paris, profiting by the revolutionary disturbances of the times, wreaked their vengeance on the new labor-saving device by wrecking the establishment. The inventor was compelled to flee for life. During the same year another Frenchman, Charles Barbier, invented the system of raised printing for the blind. 500 LISTER'S COMPOUND MICROSCOPE Sir Thomas Lawrence, the celebrated English portrait painter, died at the outset of the year. Il his early youth at Bristol and Oxford, this artist showed marked talent for portraiture, and became a pupil of Sir Joshua Reynolds at the Royal Academy. His delicate pastel portraits obtained great vogue in the most aristocratic circles of London. On the death of his master Lawrence was appointed painter to the King. He became the fashionable portrait painter of the age. As such, Lawrence was summoned to Aix-la-Chapelle during the International Congress of 1818 to paint the vari- ous dignitaries of the Holy Alliance. While at Vienna he painted the famous pastel of Napoleon's son, the little King of Rome by all odds the most charming of all the many likenesses of that unfortunate eaglet. Lawrence returned to England a few days after the death of Benjamin West, and was immediately elected to succeed him as President of the Royal Academy. He held this office for ten years, until his death. Among the most noted works of Lawrence, executed during this time, is the portrait of the Duke of Wellington. In this year Joseph Jackson Lister, an English amateur optician, contributed to the Royal Society the famous paper detailing his recent experiments with the compound micro- scope. Aided by Tully, a celebrated optician, Lister suc- ceeded in making of the microscope a practical scientific implement rather than a tov. With the help of his own in- strument Lister was able to settle the long mooted question as to the true form of the red corpuscles of the human blood. In the face of the menacing attitude of the liberal ele- ments of France, which had been rendered more acute by the King's increase of the Chamber of Peers to the detri- ment of the Deputies, the French Government launched forth upon the conquest of Algiers. It was believed to be an The portraits of the King of Rome and Wellington appear among the illustrations of Volume I of the prevent work. XlXth Century-Vol. I-4 501 1830 3'RANCE ANNEXES ALGIERS auspicious moment. The Siltan's reluctant acknowledgment of the independence of Greece, April 25, showed howv power- less he was. The Dey of Algiers had insulted France by his discourteous treatment of a French consul. He refused the satisfaction demanded by France. On the failure of a block- ade to reduce the city of Algiers, an expedition commanded by Bourmont set out for Africa in spring. A landing was successfully effected by the middle of June. Early in July Algiers was taken. Immense spoils, valued at 48,000,000 francs, were seized by the French. England grew apprehen- sive. George IV had just died (June 26), and the Duke of Wellington, who was retained in power by the new King, William IV, demanded from the French Government an en- gagement to retain none of its new conquests. It was in vain. The seething spirit of the people in France seemed to demand an outlet. The victories of French arms in Africa were cast before the French people as a sop. The permanent annexa- tion of Algiers -was announced. The heated spirit of the rising generation had already; been revealed in the hysterical demonstrations that occurred on the occasion of the first performance of Victor Hugo's "Hernani" on February 23. Conspicuous among the leaders of the literary tumult was Theophile Gautier, then a youth of eighteen, but already an author and an Hugolatre intran- sigeant, who led the claque on this first night resplendent in a rose-colored doublet and streaming long hair. With him was young Balzac, who had just won renown and notoriety by his "Physiology of Marriage" and the first of his "Droll Tales." In March the Liberals in the Chambers declared their want of confidence in the Government by a majority of forty votes. Charles X, staking all on the success of his Al- gerian campaign, dissolved the Chambers. "No compro- mise, no surrender," was the motto of the Royalists as they appealed to the people. The result was an overwhelming 502 1830 THE COL'P D'PTAT OF CHARLES X majority against the Government. The whole of France was now waiting for the coup d'etat, and Europe waited with France. "Your two weakest points are the electoral law and the liberty of the press," said -Metternich to the French Am- bassador in Vienna, "but you can not touch them except through the Chambers. A coup d'etat would ruin the dy- nasty." Charles X could not be restrained. There are only Lafayette and I who have not changed since 1789," said the King. On July 24, a Sunday, after attending mass, Charles X signed the orders that were to rid him of his Chambers All his Ministers signed with him. "For life and for death, gentlemen," said the King. "Count upon me as I count upon you. " The Orders in Council appeared in the "Moniteur" the next day. It was said that Sauvo, the editor of the "Moni- tpeur," as he gave the order to go to press, exclaimed: "God protect the King." The publication of the edict caused an instant extraordinary fall in stocks. Thiers thundered against it in the "Journal des DIbats." Government troops seized the printing presses of the leading journals. Murmur- ing crowds gathered on the streets. The King appointed Marshal Marmont commandant of Paris. It was the last stroke, for Marmont was popularly execrated as the betrayer of Napoleon. The National Guards brought forth their old tricolor cockades of the Revolution and the Empire. Next morning all work stopped, and the people fell to building bar- ricades. Whole streets were torn up. The pupils of the Polytechnic School broke open the gates and the tricolor flag floated on the towers of Notre Dame. Marshal Mar- mont reported to the King: 'Sire, it is no longer a riot, but a revolution. There is urgent need for your Majesty to take means of pacification. Thus the honor of the Crown may yet be saved. To-morrow it will be too late." The King's answer was to declare Paris under a state of siege. The so- a03 1830 CHARLES X IS DEPOSED called "Great Week," or "three days' revolution," had begun. The bourgeoisie or middle class and all the students joined the revolt. Before nightfall 600 barricades blocked the streets of Paris. Every house became a fortress. "Where do the rebels get their powder " asked the King in aston- ishment. "From the soldiers," was the curt reply of the Procureur-General. In the evening the H6tel de Ville [City Hall] was cap- tured. That evening the Ministers tried to enlighten the King, but he only replied: "Let the insurgents lay down their arms." While the discharges of artillery shook the windows of the palace the King played whist. Next day two line regiments openly joined the revolt. The Louvre was stormed. Still the King at St. Cloud would not yield. "They exaggerate the danger," said he. "I know what con- cessions would lead to. I have no wish to ride like my brother on a cart." Instead of concessions he vested the com- mand in the Dauphin, having grown suspicious of Marmont. The mob sacked the Tuileries and hoisted the tricolor flag on the clock tower. At the Hotel de Ville a municipal commis- sion was installed, composed of Lafayette, Casimir Perier, General Lobaui, and Audry de Puyraveau. At last, when it was too late, the King countermanded his obnoxious orders and dismissed Polignac with his Ministry. The people no longer paid attention to the King's acts. He was declared de- posed. A republic was proclaimed and its presidency offered to Lafayette. But the old hero declined the honor. With Thiers he threw his influence in favor of the Duke of Or- leans. Louis Philippe, the Duke of Orleans, the son of Philip Egalit6, of Revolutionary fame, was invited to Paris to exer- cise the functions of lieutenant-general of the kingdom. The deposed King at St. Cloud hastened to confirm the appoint- ment. The Duke of Orleans respectfully declined the royal appointment. "You can not receive things from everybody," 504 1830 LOUIS PHILIPPE TAKES THRON1 said Dupont. General Lafayette soon came to pay his re- spects. "You know," said he, "that I am a republican, and consider the Constitution of the United States as the most perfect that has been devised." "So do 1," replied the Duke; "but do you think that in the present condition of France it would be advisable for us to adopt it" "No," answered Lafayette; "what the French people must now have is a popular throne, surrounded by republican institutions." "That is just my opinion," said Prince Louis Philippe. Lafayette's conversation with the Prince led to the so- called programme of the Hotel de Ville. "I shall not take the crown," said the Duke of Orleans, "I shall receive it from the people on the conditions it suits them to impose. A charter -will henceforth be a realitv." At last Charles X abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. The Duke of Orleans refused to recognize the claims of this man, Henri V, as he was called, and France and Europe were with the Duke. Charles X relinquished further hopes. The Dauphin, formerly Duke of Angoulme, in like man- ner resigned his rights to his nephew. The act was signed on the 2d of August. Charles X now set out for Normandy with his guards, commanded by, Marmont, and, on August 16, embarked at Cherbourg in two American vessels, with the Dauphin and Dauphiness, the Duchess of Berry, the Duke of Bordeaux, and a numerous suite of attendants. The ships sailed for England, and, anchoring at Spithead, the royal fugitives took up their residence at Lulworth Castle, in Dor- setshire, but eventually removed to Holyrood Castle at Edin- burgh, which was placed at their disposal by the British Gov- ernment. On August 9 Louis Philippe, on the formal request of the two Chambers, accepted the crown of France with a sol- emn oath to uphold the Constitution. The overthrow of the Bourbons was not a revolution in the sense of the great French Revolution of the previous cen- 305 1830 "THE CITIZEN KING" tury. It resulted chiefly in the transfer of government from one political faction to another. Louis Philippe, raised to the throne by reason of his supposed democratic principles, rather than for his royal lineage, was a Republican only in name. On the outbreak of the Revolutionary war, the young Prince, then Duke of Chartres, fought with distinction by the side of Kellermann and Dninouriez at Valrm and Jeminapes. He accompanied the latter when he took refuge in the camp of the imperialists in April, 1793. After the death of his father, Philippe Egalit6, refusing to bear arms against France, he joined his sister and -Madame de Genlis in Switzer- land, where they lived for some time under an assumed name. In 1796 hle sailed to the United States of America. Here he was joined by his two brothers, and after some years spent in America, during which they were often in distress, the three princes went to England in 1800. The Duke of Orleans now obtained a reconciliation with the heads of his family, Louis XVIII and the Count of Artois. Subsequently he became a guest at the court of Ferdinand IV, the dispossessed King of Naples, at Palermo; and here was celebrated, in November, 1809, his marriage with the Princess Marie Amelie, daughter of that monarch. Upon the restoration of Louis XVIII he reentered France, and took his seat in the Chamber of Peers; but having fallen under suspicion of disaffection, he once more retired to England and did not reappear in France till 1817. During the remainder of the reign of Louis he took no part in public affairs and lived in tranquillity at his favor- ite villa at Nenilly. Ile was a "citizen king" only in so far as he sent his children to the public schools and walked about the streets of Paris with an umbrella under his arm. The most lasting effect in France of the July revolution was the obliteration of clerical influences in the administration and public education. The Royalist nobility likewise lost what political ascendency they had regained during the Restora- 506 1830 BEL:IUM AI REVOLTS FROM HOLLAN-D 1 tion. Henceforth the party in power xwas that of the bour- geoisie or great middle class of France, of which Louis Phi- lippe himself was the self-constituted representative. Outside of France, on the contrary, the effects of the short revolution were far-reaching. In the Netherlands ever in- creasing friction between the Dutch-speaking Protestants of Holland and the French Catholics of Belgium had excited the country to the point of revolution. Repressive mneasures on the part of the Dutch Government made matters worse. On August 25 the performance at the Brussels Opera House of Auber's "The Dumb Girl of Portici," with its representa- tion of a revolutionary rising in Naples, gave the signal for revolt. From the capital the insurrection spread throughout Belgium. The King sumnmoned the States-General to The Hague and agreed to an administrative separation of Belgium and Holland; but the storm was not quelled. On the appear- ance of Dutch troops in Brussels, barricades were erected and the insurgents drove the soldiers out of the city. For several days fighting continued in the outskirts. A provi- sional government declared the independence of Belgium. Mediation by a conference in Holland was frustrated by the bombardment of Antwerp by its Dutch garrison. The French Liberals were burning to give assistance. Austria and Russia stood ready to prevent their intervention by force of arms. Louis Philippe, while holding the French war party in check, felt constrained to look about him for an ally. In this extremity Prince Talleyrand, the old-time diplomat of the Bourbons, the Republic, the Empire, and the Restora- tion, now in his eightieth year, was sent to London. He approached Wellington and the new King with such eonsuiii- mate address that an understanding was soon reached with England, which set at naught all projects of European armed intervention on behalf of the Prince of Orange. Such inter- vention could not have failed to drag the French into war. 507 1830 REVOLT OF POLAND Now it was agreed that the regulation of Belgian affairs should be submitted to a conference at London. In the in- terim Belgian independence was accepted in effect and hostilities ended. In Greece the Government of Capodistrias was beset with such difficulties that it was decided to invite some Euro- pean prince to set up a constitutional monarchy. The throne was offered to Prince Leopold of Coburg, the husband of the late Princess Charlotte of England. Leopold accepted, but when he learned that the Powers would not grant complete independence to Greece without restoring 2Etolia, Thessaly, and the fertile islands of Samos and Candia to the Sultan, he withdrew his acceptance. Peace had scarcely been restored in the Netherlands when the spirit of revolt, traveling northward, seized the ardent people of Poland. Alexander's recognition of home rule in Poland had given the Poles a parliament and army of their own. After the Polish conspiracies at the outset of Nich- olas's reign, the Czar would no longer invoke the Polish Diet, and Russian troops and officers were sent into Poland. Of course this was bitterly resented. Plans for an uprising had already been made in 1828 during the Turkish war. The example of the successful risings in Paris and Brussels now brought matters to a head. On November 29 the revolt broke out in Warsaw. The Polish regiments of the garrison joined the insurgents. The Russian troops, finding the odds against them, withdrew. Grandduke Constantine narrowly escaped with his life. A provisional Polish Diet was con- voked. Prince Czartoryski was elected President. The Poles, in remembrance of the late Czar's kindly attitude toward them, flattered themselves that the fruits of their revolution might be left to them. Lubecki, the former chief of the Imperial Council in Poland, with two associates, set out for St. Petersburg to voice the Polish demands for con- 508 1830 DEATH OF BOLIVAR stitutional government before the Czar. It was even pro- posed that constitutional government should be conceded to those Russian provinces that had formerly belonged to Po- land. On the way to St. Petersburg the eves of the envoys were opened as they met the formidable columnns of Russian troops marching to the Polish frontier. Forthwith, Lubecki forsook the cause of Poland. His colleagues found difficulty in obtaining a hearing from the Czar. When they were finally admitted to the imperial palace, Nicholas gave them clearly to understand that Poland had but two alternatives, unconditional submission or complete subjugation. When this answer reached Warsaw it was too late to swing the out- side Polish provinces and Lithuania into the movement. Yet the Polish Diet, in a spirit of patriotic frenzy amounting to national suicide, passed a resolution declaring that the House of Romanoff had forfeited the Polish crown. Fever- ish preparations were made for a death struggle with Russia. The fall of the Bourbons in France had once more raised the hope of the Spanish Liberals. On the other hand, King Ferdinand's abolition of the Salic law of succession in Spain, so as to assure the throne to his new wife, raised up a party of absolutists against him. His brothers, Don Carlos and Francisco, became the heads of this movement and rallied their supporters around them in the Basque provinces. In Portugal kindred dissensions rent the land in twain. Dom Miguel's claims to the crown were disputed on behalf of the constitutional government by the Duke of Palermno. Across the seas, Dom Pedro of Brazil proclaimed himself the legiti- mate heir to the throne of Braganza. Like other South American States, Brazil was itself a prey to internal dissensions and civil strife. To put an end to the recurrent revolutions of South America, Simon Bol- ivar conceived a scheme for a Pan-Americain Congress to weld together all the quasi-republican governments of the South- 509 1830 WEBSTER'S REPLY TO HAYNE ern Hemisphere and Central America. Unfortunately for this project, Bolivar's own aspirations to dictatorial rule told against him. His chief opponents were those who were striving for a disruption of the Colombian Union. His own States, Peru and Bolivia, had already declared against him. The Congress finally voted to give Bolivar a pension of 3,000 a year on condition that he should leave America forever. Bolivar, stung to the quick, resigned all offices and honors, and went to Caracas to sail for England; but before he could embark he died heart-broken at Santa Marta, on December 17. In the new English penal colony of Van Diemen's Land in Australia, the Tasmania of latter days, the self-assertive and domineering traits of the Anglo-Saxon race were no less apparent among the convicts than among the few free set- tlers. A few years before this the colonists had proclaimed themselves independent of New South Wales and established a separate government. The Van Diemen's Land Company received a grant of 25,000 acres; white population in- creased; religious, educational, and commercial institu- tions were founded. The natives were all but extermi- nated. The white population-largely of convict antecedents -by this time numbered more than 15,000 persons. In North America the doctrine of nullification, newly put forth, emphasized the growing differences between the Northern and Southern States. The great debate between Hayne and Webster came about casually in the course of a discussion of the sale of public lands. The topic of nullifica- tion was dragged in by Southern speakers. Webster felt called upon to uphold the cause of the Northern States. Smarting under some of his animadversions of Southern sloth, Hayne made a two-day speech in which he inveighed against the spirit of the New Englanders. His own State, South Carolina, and her sister States in the South, he de- 510 1830 KING REBUFFS WELLINGTON dlared, would defend their sovereign rights, or 'perish in the last ditch." Webster's reply to those prophetic words was the grandest oratorical effort of his life. He declared for the continued union of all the States in all their strength: "Lib- erty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable." Jackson's progressive foreign policy poured oil on the troubled waters. His repeal of the shipping acts of 1818, 1820, and 1823, as a result of negotiations entered into with England, brought about a resumption of direct tra(le with the West Indies. In Ireland Daniel O'Connell commenced an agitation for repeal of the union with England. His prosecution for trea- son became a State trial. O'Connell's ultimate conviction once more alienated the powerful Catholic Association of Ireland. Abuse and obloquy were heaped upon the Min- isters from every quarter. Caricatures of them were stamped even on handkerchiefs and calico aprons. As soon as Par- liament was reopened, a significant rebuff was adminis- tered to the Ministry by the Crown. The King preferred to deliver his speech in person. In the face of the Prime Minister's declaration against reform, Sir Harry Parnell, even before the delivery of the King's speech, announced a bill for the revision of the civil list. Parnell's motion was carried. Brougham followed this up with a motion for a reform of the rotten borough system. Rather than submit to another inevitable defeat Wellington's Ministry resigned. Earl Grev, leader of the Whig opposition, was made Prime Minister. Brougham was raised to the peerage, and accepted the post of Lord Chancellor. Palmerston was reappointed Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Lord Grey's appointment of six or seven of his relatives to administrative posts weakened his Ministry from the outset. 511 1 830 EVENTS OF 1831 Belgian Conference Defines Boundaries of Holland and Belgium and Reapportions Their National Debts-Leopold of Saie- Coburg Elected King of Belgium-Holland and France Send Armies into Belgium to Oppose and Uphold Respectively Belgian Annexation of Luxem- burg-Compromise Effected Whereby Union Remains and Germany Holds Frontier Forts-Capodistrias Adopts Autocratic Measures to Preserve Order in Greece, and is Assassinated-Revolts in Italy against Papal Rule-Austria Stamps Out Italian Insurrection in Defiance of France-Louis Philippe Does Nothing-Lafayette Re- signs as Premier-His Successor, Casimir Perier, Cleverly Accom- plishes Austria's Evacuation of Italy, while Committing Austria and Italy to Constitutional Government-Poles Drive Main Body of Russian Forces Back from the Vistula-Are Themselves Driven Over the Narev by Defeat at Ostrolenka-Elsewhere Russians Force Poles Back into Galicia and Prussia-Cholera Devastates Both Armies-Civil Revolution in Warsaw-Prussia and Austria Aid Russia, which Marches on Warsaw-Its Capitulation Ends the War- -Tyrannical Russification of Poland-Prussia and Austria Imitate Russia's Tyranny-Death of Hegel-rowth of Transportation in America Vastly Increases Area of Settlement-Black Hawk War- Garrison Publishes the "Liberator"-Nat Turner's Negro Insurrec- tion Embitters South against Abolitionists-Death of Monroe-Great Parliamentary Contest Over Reform Bill-Electorate Supports Gov- ernment and Bill is Passed by the Commons-Cobbett is Tried for Sedition-Government Fails to Convict Him-Reform Bill is Re- jected by the Lords-Mobs Fire House of Prominent Opponents of the Bill, Both Clerical and Lay-Awed by Riots at Lyons, French Deputies Abolish Hereditary Peerage, and the Peers Concur in the Decree British Government Resolves to Pack Upper House by Creating Peers Pledged to Reform Bill. E 5 ARLY in January the representatives of the Powers at the Belgian Conference in London signed a pro- tocol defining the limits of Belgium and Holland, and apportioning to each country its share in the national debt. The Belgians, with a view to future incorporation into France, elected for their sovereign the Duc de Nemours, sec- ond son of Louis Philippe. When a proclamation to this effect was made on February 3, Louis Philippe, acting under Talleyrand's advice, withheld official sanction. Privately he had encouraged his son's candidacy, the more so as a Bona- partist rival, the son of Eugene Beauharnais, was in the field. The conference at London determined not to permit 512 ANNEXATION OF LUXEMBUR8 Belgium thus to become a dependency of France. The Brit- ish Government decided that it would no longer discoun- tenance armed intervention in Belgium against French schemes of aggrandizement. Talleyrand obtained the best terms open to his sovereign by insisting on the withdrawal of the Bonapartist pretender. The selection of Prince Leo- pold of Saxe-Coburg was encouraged by France on the un- derstanding that Leopold, if elected King of Belgium, should marry a daughter of Louis Philippe. Leopold was elected on June 4, and accepted the crown only on the condition that the London Conference should modify its territorial ar- rangements of January. This brought up the Luxemburg question. Since the Paris treaty of 1814, the formidable stronghold of Lnxemburg, though under the sovereignty of the King of Holland, was maintained as the strongest border fortress of the German Confederation. Now, the Luxem- burgers had made common cause with the Belgians. Leopold accordingly insisted that Luxemburg should be treated as an integral part of Belgium. The powers at London yielded to this demand sufficiently to annul the declarations of January, with the promise of a future settlement of the status of Lux- emburg. On this repudiation of the recent international declaration in favor of the Netherlands, the King of Holland took up arms. A Dutch army of 50,000 advanced into Bel- gium. Leopold at once appealed to France for assistance. A French army marched into Belgium from the other side. The powers at London made haste to intervene. A British fleet made a demonstration before Antwerp. Under pressure Leopold signed an agreement to raze the fortifications on the Belgian frontier. Reluctantly the King of Holland recalled his armny. UInder the threat of another armed coalition against France, Louis Philippe withdrew his forces. Out- ward tranquillity was once more restored. No immediate settlement, however, was reached in regard to Luxemburg. 513 1831 3ASSASSINATION OF CAPODISTRIAS The union of the Luxemburgers with the Belgians remained in effect, while on the other hand strong German garrisons continued to hold the fortifications. For years to come this remained a vexatious problem. After the restriction of the Greek frontiers by the Powers, Capodistrias's government was appreciably weak- ened. As difficulties thickened about him, he resorted to the restrictive measures to which he bad become accustomed while Prime Minister of Russia. He felt that the cause of Greece would be jeopardized unless order was maintained at any cost. When the old revolutionary leaders became turbu- lent, Capodistrias only put his government on a firmer basis. Mavrocordato, Konduriottes, and Miaulis at this juncture waited upon the President as a committee from the opposi- tion and demanded the withdrawal of the obnoxious meas- ures. Capodistrias would not vield, and the popular leaders betook themselves to Hydra. Preparations for civil war were begun. The President sent out an expedition to sup- press them. To prevent the fleet from falling into his hands at Paros, -Mianlis burned the "Hellas," the American-built frigate, and twventy-eight other ships. Among those that were imprisoned by Capodistrias was Petro Mavromichalis, the hero of the Morea. The Russian admiral sailed to Nauplia to intercede in his behalf, but in vain. -Mavromichalis's brother and son, Constantine and George, appealed to the President in person, but were put under arrest themselves. On October 9 Constantine and George Mlavromichalis fell upon Capodistrias as he was going to church and shot him dead. One of the assassins was killed on the spot, while the other was executed later. Capodistrias's brother, Augustine, assumed charge. Ilis government was short-lived. After a few months lie sailed with his brother's body to Corfu. In the meantime another blow for national unity was struck in Italv. On the death of Pius VIII, late in 1830, 514 1831 AUSTRIA CONIES TO THE POPE'S AID Gregory XVI was elected. He had scarcely been installed in the chair of St. Peter when a report reached him that Bologna had revolted against papal rule. On Febriiary 3 Menotti raised the signal of revolt at Modena. lie was lired into the power of the Grandduke of Modena, but the insur- rection spread so rapidly through northern Italy that the Grandduke had to fly to Austria. Menotti was carried to Austria and put to death. It was about this time that AIazzini made his first public appearance as a revolutionist and was imprisoned. Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Benvenuti to Bo- logna as a legate to treat with the rebels, but the legate was made a captive and the revolt spread southward to the papal dominions. In his extremity the Pope called upon Austria for help. Austria, whose own dominions in Italy were threatened, had every reason to grant this request. The only obstacle was the threatening attitude of France. Before sending out his troops, Metternich took pains to ascertain the im- mediate intentions of France. The official answer given to the inquiries of the Austrian Ambassador in Paris was that Austrian intervention in favor of the sovereigns of Parma and Modena, who were related to the House of lHapsburg, might be tolerated. An extension of such intervention to the Papal States or to Piedmont would certainly constitute a casus belli. In token of this declaration, the French Am- bassador at Constantinople was instructed to make overtures for an offensive and defensive alliance to the Sultan. In this crisis iMetternich put forth all the powers of statesmanship at his command. He declared that it was better for Austria, if necessary, to perish by war than by revolution. On the instant he assured to Russia the support of Austria against the Poles, while he worked upon the fears of Louis Philippe by pointing to the presence of young Louis Bonaparte and his brother with the Italian insurgents. As 515 1831 POLES ARE BEATEN BACK a last resort he could always let loose upon France Napo- leon's son, the Duke of Reichstadt, now growing to manhood at Vienna. In defiance of the French declaration, Austria advanced a strong army through northern Italy into the papal dominion. The insurrection was ruthlessly stamped out. Louis Philippe did nothing. Lafayette resigned his Minis- try in chagrin. He was succeeded by Casimir Perier, a con- stitutional statesman of modern mold. Onl behalf of France be put forward a double-edged demand that the Austrians should evacuate the papal dominions as soon as the papal government should reform its abuses. For the first time in their history, Austria and the Papacy were made to de- clare for constitutional reforms. A conference at Rome agreed upon the schemes of reforms to be instituted by the Pope. Further pretext for revolution was thus removed. In July the last Austrian forces withdrew from the Papal States. The Polish struggle, during the earlier part of this year, bad assumed the proportions of a national war. In February the Russians took the offensive. General Diebitsch at the head of a column of 120,000 men marched into Poland. In the first encounters against the Polish forces, who were led by officers awho had served under Napoleon, the Russians sus- tained such losses at Stoczek, Grochov, and Bialolenska that Diebitsch had to call for reenforcements. The main body of the Russian army had to abandon the bank of the Vistula. Three detached corps remained stationed there. The Polish general, Skrzynecki, who had succeeded Prince Radzivil in the command, then took the offensive. He defeated the Rus- sians under Geismas at Waver, and General Rosen at Dem- bevilkie and Igknie, but then stopped short. In the mean- while a Polish expedition into Volhynia failed completely. Dvernicki was driven back into Galicia. Another Polish ex- pedition sent into Lithuania under Vilna likewise ended in disaster. The main body of the Poles had to cross the Prus- 516 1831 CAPITULATION OF WARSAW Sian frontier. Only one division under Dembinski recovered the road to Warsaw. In the interval the Polish armv under Skrzynecki fought a pitched battle on :May 26 with the right wing of the Russian main army at Ostrolenka. After a se- vere fight the Poles had to fall back over the Narev. Cholera now broke out in both camps. General Diebitsch and Grand- duke Constantine on the Russian side succumbed to the dis- ease. During this breathing space for the Poles, a revolution against the provisional government broke out in Warsaw. The streets ran with blood. Czartorvski fled in disguise. General Krukoviecki was made dictator. He shot a number of the mutineers and replaced Skrzvnecki by Dembinski. Prussia and Austria turned against the Poles. The Prus- sian arsenals and military stores at Dantzig and Koenigsberg were placed at the disposal of Diebitsch's successor, General Paskievitch. He crossed the Vistula at Warsaw and marched on the capital along the left bank. On September 6 the Rus- sians attacked Warsaw from the side of Vola and Czyste. On the Polish side Wysocki, who had begun the revolution, and General Suvenski, who had lost a leg at Borodino, were killed. Krukoviecki offered to capitulate. The Russians demanded unconditional surrender. The Polish Diet de- posed Krukoviecki and put Niemoievski in command. Pas- kievitch ordered a general attack on the city. The Russians stormed the ramparts and Warsaw capitulated. "Sire, Po- land lies at your feet," wrote Paskievitch to the Czar. It was the truth. At Plock 20,000 Poles laid down their arms. Ramarino took 15,000 into Galicia. Emperor Nicholas made an example of Poland. All those who had borne a prominent part in the insurrection were banished to Siberia. The constitution granted by Alex- ander was annulled. No more Polish Diets were tolerated. Poles in public office were superseded by Russians. The Polish soldiers and offieers were mustered into Russian ranks 517 1831 DEATH OF HEGEL and distributed over widelv different points of the Empire. The country was divided into Russian provinces, and Rus- sian systems of taxation, coinage, and of administration of justice were imposed upon Poland. In Lithuania the Polish language was banished from the schools. The University of Vilna was suppressed. Henceforth the ancient spirit of Poland lived only in those foreign exiles who fomented revo- lutionary risings in Italy, France, Austria, and Germany. Until the subjugation of Poland, the German Govern- ment, apprehensive of the course that events might take, had shown moderation in meeting the liberal movements incited by the French and Polish revolutions. Trouble first broke out in Brunswick and Hesse, the two worst governed States of Germanv. The despotic princes of Brunswick and Hesse had to resign, and reforms were instituted by their successors. In Hanover and Saxony, too, the people had to be appeased: by parliamentary concessions and an extension of the liberty of the press. In the Bavarian Palatinate, where French in- stitutions and ideas prevailed, the tricolor of France and the flag of Poland were saluted side by side with the red, black, and gold banner of ancient Germany. After the fall of War- saw the governments of Prussia and Austria insisted on new reactionary measures. The Diet of the German Confedera- tion began a campaign against all liberal tendencies, and there was a general exodus of German liberals to Switzer- land, France, and America. German liberalism during this dark period lost some of its foremost leaders by the deaths of Stein the statesman, Arnim the poet, Niebuhr the his- torian, and Hegel the philosopher. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was born in 1770 at Stuttgart. He held chairs successively at the Universities of Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin. As a philosopher he was one of the most brilliant exponents of modern rationalism, pushing to their extreme logical conclusions the philosophical 518 1831 BLACK HAWK WAR doctrines enunciated by Kant. Hegel's most lasting works proved to be his "Phenomenology of the Mind," "Philoso- phy of History," and "Philosophy of Religion." In the United States the increasing facilities of traffic and manufacture gave a tremendous impulse to the develop- ment of the country. Many railroads were opened in New York, Pennsvlvania, and Ohio. Several thousand miles of canals had been constructed by this time. The American census of 1831 showed nearly 13,000,000 inhabitants, a doubling of the population since the begin- ning of the century. An area of 725,406 square miles of territory was contained in thirty-four States and three Ter- ritories. The population spread westward, no longer in large groups, but in small bodies of pioneers, traveling along the chief rivers. West of the Missouri River all was still virgin soil. During this year Schooleraft discovered the source of the Mississippi. The settlement of Chicago was laid out and the first sale of lots there was held. A boundary and commercial treaty was concluded with Mexico in the spring. Later in the year President Jackson obtained from the French Government a promise of 25,000,000 francs indem- nity for the spoliations on American commerce made under Napoleon. On April 21 the so-called Black Hawk War broke out with the Indian tribes of the Sacs and Foxes. Some 6,500 soldiers were despatched to subdue them. In this war it so happened that Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis served as captain and lieutenant respectively. The issue of slavery was brought to the front early in the year. On the first day of January Garrison's "Liberator" appeared in Boston. Garrison advocated immediate and unconditional emancipation of the black slaves. In his first issue he said: "I will not retreat a single inch, and I will be heard." It was not long before Garrison made himself heard, and gathered about him a few men and women as determined 519 1831 18DEATH OF MONROE as himself. Among them was the young poet Whittier, Louis Tappan, and Lucretia Mott, the Quaker. A storm of obloquy and persecution was raised against Garrison. Social and public ostracism was visited upon him and his fellow abolitionists. Garrison's efforts to free the negroes were made especially unwelcome in the South by an insurrection of blacks led by Nat Turner of South Hampton. The revolt was speedily suppressed, and Turner with seventeen of his followers suffered death by hanging. Turner's attempt called forth a debate of several weeks in the Virginia Legis- lature, remarkable throughout for its exposure of the evils of slavery and their bad effect on national prosperity. James Monroe expired on July 4, the third President to die on Independence Day. Monroe was born in Virginia in 1758. He was educated at William and Mary College, stud- ied law under Jefferson, and became a member of the Con- tinental Congress at twenty-five. He saw his first military service in the War of the Revolution. Appointed Minister to France in 1794, he was recalled in 1796, and was Governor of Virginia from 1799 to 1802. His acts during the nine- teenth century have already been narrated in this work. Throughout this year in England raged the great debate over the Government's proposed reform of the rotten borough system. A bill to this effect was introduced in Parliament by Lord Russell on March 1. In the seven days' debate that followed the best speakers of England took part, among them Lord Palmerston, Sir Robert Peel, Daniel O'Connell, and young Ml!acaulay, who had only just entered Parliament. By the opponents of the bill reform -was denounced as revo- lution. The Government of the United States was cited as a deterrent example. Thus Sir Robert Peel said: "The United States has been rapidly undergoing a change from a republic to a mere democracy. The influence of the executive-the influence of the Government-has been 520 1831 BRITISH REFORMERS WIN ELECTION8 daily becoming less, and more power has consequently been vested in the hands of the people." In the end the Government obtained a second reading of the bill by a bare majority of one. The opposition had made a motion to withdraw the bill. After another prolonged debate this was carried against the Government by a majority of eight. Parliament was dissolved, as both Houses were on the point of carrying a motion asking the King not to consent to a dissolution. The elections which followed wvere tur- bulent in the extreme. Throughout England the reformers raised the cry: "The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill." It was then that the custom of electioneering by means of processions and bands of music caine into vogue. When the results of the elections were announced it was found that the Tories had lost more than a hundred seats. On the other hand a few of the most prominent supporters of the Govern- ment suffered signal defeat, notably Lord Palmerston and Cavendish. On the Tory side young Gladstone, then still a student at Oxford, came into notice bv his warm speech against the proposed reform. Parliament was reopened with another hot debate on the all-engrossing bill. It was passed to a second reading by a strong majority of 135 votes. Scarcely had this been accomplished when the Government was embarrassed by William Cobbett's State trial for sedi- tion. Throughout the trial the Attorney-General treated Cobbett with marked courtesy, speaking of him as "one of the greatest masters of the English language." In truth Cobbett's virile, racy, Saxon style, while it delighted men of taste, was also intelligible to the humblest commoner, and accounted largely for the tremendous popularity of his jour- nal, the "Political Register." Cobbett escaped conviction by a disagreement of the jury. After this interlude the debate on the Reform Bill went on. On the second night of the debate Thomas Babington Mlacaulay delivered his first reform 521 1831 REFORM BILL RIOTS speech. When he sat down he had taken rank among the best Parliamentary orators. "Portions of the speech," said Sir Robert Peel, "were as beautiful as anything I have ever heard or read. It reminded me of old times. The names of Burke, Fox, and Canning during the evening were linked with that of Mr. MUacaulay." Finally the opposition was caught unawares late on the night of September 19, when they could muster but fifty-eight votes, and the bill was thus passed to its third reading. The Tories took pains to be present in force a few days afterward, when the final pas- sage of the bill was moved. After a last passionate debate lasting through three days and nights the Commons passed the bill by a majority of 106 votes. That same night Earl Grey proposed the bill before the Lords. Addressing him- self to the bishops, he said significantly: "I specially beg the spiritual portion of your lordships to pause and reflect. If this bill shall be thrown out by a narrow majority and the scale should be turned by the votes of the prelates, what would be their situation Let them set their houses in order !" These menacing words gave great offence to the clergy. The Duke of Wellington spoke strongly against the measure. The Lords, after an all-night debate, threw out the bill. The immediate effect was a sharp decline in stocks. A few hours after the House of Peers adjourned at six o'clock in the morning, a run for gold began on the Bank of Eng- land. The simultaneous effort of the French to abolish their hereditary peerage was hailed as an omen of what was com- ing in England. Riots broke out all over England. The return to Bristol of Sir C. Wetherell, one of the chief oppo- nents of the bill, was made the occasion of ominous demon- strations. A riotous mob burnt the mansion house over his head. Next, the Bishop of Bristol was driven from his Episcopal seat. The mob fired the mansion house, the bish- op's palace, the excise office, the custom-houses, three prisons, 522 1831 FRAN-CE ABOLISHES PEERAGE 1831 four toll houses, and forty-two private houses of prominent Tories. No one was injured until troops were called in to dis- perse the mob. Then a number of rioters were sabred and shot. About the same time riots broke out at Bath, Worces- ter, Coventry, Warwick, Lichfield, Nottingham, and Canter- bury. With difficulty Archbishop Howley of Canterbury was rescued from the hands of an infuriated mob. The Bishops of Winchester and Exeter were burnt in effigy before their very palaces. The Bishop of London did not dare to hold services at Westminster. The news from France served to increase the alarm. Disturbances of a far more serious char- acter in favor of the abolition of the hereditary peerage were reported from Lyons. As a result of these popular demonstrations, December 27 both Chambers of Deputies passed the decree, which was concurred in by the peers. Late in the year, after another rejection of the Reform Bill by the Lords, the bill was triumphantly reintroduced in the Commons. The question now was no longer: "What vill the Lords do" but: "What will be done with the Lords " Rather than risk the threatening downfall of the House of Peers, the Ministers reluctantly determined to pack the Upper House by the creation of a sufficient number of new peers pledged to vote for the Reform Bill. A verse at- tributed to Macaulay ran: "What though now opposed I be, Twenty peers shall carry me; If twenty won't, thirty will, For I'm his Majesty's bouncing Bill." "Thus," as Molesworth, the historian of the Reform Bill, has put it, "amid the anxieties of the reformers on one hand, and the dread of revolution on the other, amid incendiary fires and Asiatic cholera spreading throughout the country, amid distress of trade and dread of coming bankruptcy, the year 1831 went gloomily out." 523 1831 EVENTS OF 1832 William IV Refuses to Create New Peers to Pass Reform Bill-Grey'i Ministry Resigns--Reformers Use Ensuing Financial Panic to Aid Their Cause-Wellington Fails to Form Ministry-The King Consents to Create Reform Peers-House of Lords Passes the Bill -Powers Choose Otto of Wittelsbach as King of Greece--Austria Again Intervenes to Repress Italian Revolutionists-France Occu- pies Ancona to Watch Austria-Deaths of Cuvier, Goethe, and Acott-Discovery of "Burking" Leads to Licensing of Traffic in Corpses for Dissection-Death of Napoleon's Son-The Duchess of Berry Returns to France and is Arrested while Inciting Orleanist Rising-Death of General Lamarque Starts Insurrection, which is Suppressed by National Guard-German Diet Passes More Oppres- sive Measures-Attacks by Dom Miguel's Adhe-ents on Foreigners Suppressed by English and French Squadrons-Dom Pedro of Brazil Lands at Oporto with Navy to Fight Dom Miguel-Dom Miguel Besieges Oporto-Mehemet Ali of Egypt Revolts against Sultan of Turkey-Egyptians Take Acre-They Beat Turks at Pass of Beilan and at Konieh--Sultan Puts Russian general Muravieff at Head of Turks to Save Constantinople-Jackson Vetoes Charter of United States Bank-South Carolina Nullifies New Tariff Act- Jackson Prepares to Collect Revenues by Force-Calhoun Resigns Vice-Presidency and is Elected Senator fromt South Carolina-Semi- noles are Removed to Indian Territory-Black Hawk Leads Wis- consin Indiana Back to Homes when They had been Forcibly De- ported-Is Defeated and Captured-Epidemic of Cholera-Invention of the Reaper Gives Great Impetus to Development of West-First Horse-Cars in New York-Death of Carroll, Last Survivor of Signers of Declaration of Independence. EE new year opened in England with a series of trials arising out of the disturbances which fol- lowed the rejection of the Reform Bill in the House of Lords. A great number of rioters were convicted. Altogether, seven men were put to death at Bristol and Not- tingham. The officers who commanded the troops during the riots were court-martialed. When Parliament reassem- bled, the Commons once more passed the Reform Bill and carried it up to the Lords. In the course of the renewed debate on the Reform Bill in the House of Peers the Duke of Wellington announced that he had reason to believe that the King did not approve of the bill. The statement was confirmed by the King's refusal to create new peers wherewith 524 LORDS PASS REFORM BILL to pass the bill through the Upper House. Thereupon Lord Grey and his colleagues resigned from the Ministry. The King accepted their resignation. Monster petitions were immediately sent in to the Commons from Manchester, Bir- mingham, Leeds, and other great centres of population, urg- ing the Commons to refuse the supplies until reform should have been secured. Once more stocks fell sharply. For the express purpose of embarrassing the King's chosen succes- sors for the Cabinet, runs were made on the Bank of Eng- land and on the savings banks at Birmingham and Man- chester. The streets of London were covered with placards: "Go for gold and stop the Duke !" In the face of this agita- tion the Duke of Wellington declined the King's offer to form a Ministry. Sir Robert Peel likewise declined. As a last resort Wellington consented to form a Ministry, but could not get together a Cabinet strong enough to stem the storm. The Iron Duke's popularity as well as the King's was at an end. When the King came up to London, accompanied by his sons, they were received with hoots and insults. Missiles were thrown at the royal carriage, and the Life Guards had to fight a way through the mob with their swords. The King was driven to the humiliating expedient of recalling his dismissed Ministers. William IV now consented to create the required number of new peers. Lord Brougham gave mortal offence to the King by a request that he should put his promise in writing. With the King's written pledge in their hands the Ministers obtained an agreement from their oppo- nents to pass the bill without further coercion. At length, early in June, the Reform Bill passed through the House of Lords after a third reading. One hundred and six peers voted for it and only twenty-two against it. On this occa- sion Sir Robert Peel made a remark to which his subsequent change of front gave peculiar significance: "Whenever the Government comes to deal with the corn laws, the precedent XIXth Century-Vol. II-5 525 1832 DEATH OF CUVIER formed by the present occasion will be appealed to." The re- form measure, as at last adopted, swept away 142 seats in, the Commons. It gave to the counties sixty-five additional representatives and conferred the right of sending members to Parliament on Manchester, Birmingham, Leeds, and thirty- nine other large towns hitherto unrepresented. It was in May that the great Powers, in response to another appeal from Greece, suggested Prince Otto of Wit- telsbach, the second son of the Philhellene King of Bavaria, for the vacant throne. This choice was ratified in October amid general rejoicings by the population of Greece. In Italy, early in the year, the Pope's failure to carry out his promise of reform created new troubles. An amnesty, which had been granted by the legate Benvenuti, was disre- garded and the papal soldiery practiced all manner of repres- sion. Another revolt broke out, and once more the Austrians, at the Pope's request, crossed the frontier. They restored order so well that they were actually welcomed as protectors against the ruthless condottieri of the papal troops. Aus- tria's intervention was resented by France as a breach of the peace. Casimir P6rier, now on his deathbed, despatched a French force to Ancona. The town was seized before the Austrians could approach it. Austria accepted the situation, and both Powers in Italy remained face to face jealously watching each other. France in the same year lost one of its distinguished men of science, by the death of Baron Cuvier, the great naturalist. Georges Leopold Cuvier was born in 1769 at Montbeliard. After studying at Stuttgart he became private tutor in the family of Count d'Hericy, in Normandy, where he was at liberty to devote his leisure to natural science and in particu- lar to zoology. A natural classification of the Vermtv or worms was his first achievement. The ability and knowledge shown in this work procured him the friendship of the great- 526 1832 DEATH OF GOETHE est naturalists of France. He was invited to Paris, took a chair at the Ecole Centrale, and was received bv the Insti- tute as a member of the first class. His lectures on natural history, distinguished not less for the elegance of their style than for profound knowledge and daring speculation, were attended by some of the most accomplished persons of Paris. In January, 1800, Cuvier was appointed to the College de France. Under Napoleoin, who fully recognized his merits, Cuvier held important offices in the department of Public Instruction. Under the Restoration he was made one of the forty members of the French Academy. In 1831, a year prior to his death, he was appointed a peer of Frances Among the numerous works by which Cuvier greatly ex- panded the study of natural history may be mentioned as foremost: "Researches into Fossil Bones," "Discourse of the Revolutions on the Surface of the Globe," "A Course of Comparative Anatomy," "Natural History of Fishes," and his great work, "The Animal Kingdom," with its subdivi- sions into the four great classes-vertebrates, mollusks, articulates, and radiates. On March 22 Wolfgang von Goethe, Germany's foremost man of letters, expired at Weimar. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born in 1749, at Frankfort-on-the-Main, the son of a councilor under the old German Empire. In his six- teenth year he was sent to the University at Leipzig. Later he went to Strasburg, where he became acquainted with the poet Herder, and had his first love affair with Friederike Brion of Sesenheim, whose charm has been kept alive in Goethe's autobiography, "Dichtung und Wahrheit." In 1772 he returned to Frankfort and practiced law. While thus engaged le wrote his first romantic-historical play, "Goetz von Berlichingen." In the following year he pub- lished his sentimental romance, "The Sorrows of Werther." This novelette inaugurated in German literature what is 527 GOETHE'S MASTERPIECES known as the period of storm and stress. Disenchantment of life, or "Weltschmerz," became a fashionable malady. The romantic suicide of Goethe's sentimental hero Werther was aped by a number of over-susceptible young persons. Wieland drew the attention of the Duke of Weimar to Goethe, and the young poet was invited to Weimar. lie re- mained under patronage of this enlightened prince until the end of his days. At Weimar Goethe was the centre of a court comprising some of the foremost spirits of Germany. The little capital became a Mecca for poets, scholars, artists, and musicians from all over the world. Goethe's only rival poet in Germany, Schiller, was drawn into the circle, and the two became lifelong friends. -Most of Goethe's lyric poems were written during the first ten years at Weimar. At the out- break of the French Revolution he accompanied the Duke of Weimar in one of the campaigns against France. The thrilling atmosphere of the Revolution furnished him with a literary background for his epic idyl, "Hermann und Dor- othea." Goethe's subsequent journey to Italy, which was a turning-point in the poet's career, was commemorated in his "Letters from Italy"-a classic among German books of travel. Another eminently successful creation was the epic of "Reynard, the Fox," modeled after the famous bestiary poems of early Flemish and French literature. During the same period Goethe wrote four of his greatest dramas, "Iphigenia in Tauris," "Torquato Tasso," "Eg- mont," and the first part of "Faust." Later he wrote his great prose work, "Elective Affinities," a quasi-physiological romance; "Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship," a narrative interspersed with some of Goethe's finest lyrics, as well as the famous critique of Hamlet. The height of Goethe's superb prose style was reached in "Truth and Fiction," which stands as one of the most charming autobiographies of all times. Goethe's versatility as a writer and man was shown not only 528 1832 DEATH OF SCOTT by his free use of all literary forms, but also by his essays on such abstruse subjects as astrology, optics, the theory of color, comparative anatomy, and botany. Shortly before his death the poet finished the greatest of his works, the tragedy "Faust." He died in the eighty-third year of his life, utter- ing the words "more light." Goethe was entombed in the ducal vault at Weimar, by the side of his friends, Friedrich Schiller and Carl August of Weimar. A few months after the death of Goethe, in September, Sir Walter Scott died in England. Scott derived much of his inspiration from Goethe's writings. One of his earliest works was a translation of "Goetz von Berlichingen." Scott began his career as a writer with a translation of Buerger's "Ballads." His most successful metrical pieces, "The Min- strelsy of the Scottish Border," "The Lay of the Last Min- strel," "Marmion," and "The Lady of the Lake," for the most part appeared during the opening years of the nine- teenth century. Then came the great series of the "Waverley Novels," named after the romance of "Waverley," published anonymously in 1814. The series comprised such classics as "Guy Mannering," "The Heart of Midlothian," "Kenil- worth," "Quentin Durward," and "Ivanhoe." Scott's his- torical romances, based as thev were on painstaking researches into old chronicles, revived in Englishmen an interest in their own past. The romance of the Middle Ages was rec- ognized for the first time, if in an exaggerated degree, throughout the civilized world. The romantic movement in French literature, now in full swing, was directly inspired by Scott. His later career was clouded bv difficulties and debt. Although the great popular success of his novels soon made him rich, his hospitality at Abbotsford grew so lavish that in order to defray his expenses he joined in a financial part- nership with his publishers. The failure of the Bank of Constable in 1826, and the consequent failure of the house 529 1932t DEATH OF DUKE OF REICHSTADT of Ballantyne, ruined Scott. His debts amounted to pound;117,- 000. In his efforts to earn enough money wherewith to pay this enormous sum, Scott became a literary drudge. It was at this time that he wrote his seven-volume history of the life of Napoleon Bonaparte, "Tales of a Grandfather," and a two-volume "History of Scotland." His work as a his- torian was by no means equal to that of his purely literary creations. In 1830, as the result of overwork, Sir Walter Scott suffered from a stroke of paralysis. A journey to Italy brought no relief. Two years later he died. He was buried at Dryburgh Abbey. A remarkable instance of good resulting from evil was afforded this year by the revolting murders committed by Burke and Hare in Edinburgh. These two men deliberately killed a number of persons to sell their bodies to medical dissecters. The discovery of their crimes led to a Parlia- mentary investigation, in the course of which Sir Astley Cooper boldly stated that any man's body could be obtained in the United Kingdom if enough money was offered. The scandal resulted in the passage of an Anatomy Act licensing the traffic in human bodies within strict limitations. Before this reform surgeons experimenting in human anatomy had to rely on body-snatchers for their material. The repeal of the old laws on this subject removed much of the odium hitherto attached to the science of dissection, while the in- crease of experimental material gave a fresh impetus to the study of anatomy. A menace to the royal crown of France was removed by the death of Napoleon's son, the young Duke of Reich- stadt, erstwhile King of Rome. He expired at Schonbrunn, after an empty life spent under Mletternich's tutelage in Vienna, and was buried there. Victor Hugo applied to him the title of "L'Aiglon," the Eaglet, and the French play- wright Rostand made the life and death of this unfortunate 530 1832 REVOLUTION' OF THE DUCHESS OF BERRY Prince the subject of a romantic tragedy, "The Eaglet," in which Sarah Bernhardt achieved so striking a success at the close of the nineteenth century. The removal of another menace to Louis Philippe's throne was accompanied by circumstances less tragic. In April the Duchess of Berry, wearying of her exile, crossed over to Marseilles and traveled thence in disguise to Chateau Plassac, in the Vendee, where she summoned the Rovalists to arms. She was betraved into the hands of constables sent to arrest her, and was placed in safe-keeping at Chateau Blaye on an island in the Gironde. The affair took anl awk- ward turn for the cause of the Orleanists in France when the Duchess gave birth to an infant daughter, whose parentage she found it difficult to explain. Next, the death of General Lamarque, a popular soldier of France, started an insurrec- tion at Paris in the summer. An attempt was made to build barricades, and conflicts occurred in the streets, but the Na- tional Guard remained true to the armv and the King, and the revolt was soon put down. The government of Louis Philippe resorted to severe repressive measures, an(l trials for sedition were common. In Germanv a revolutionary appeal to arms, made at a popular festival at the Castle of Homburg, near Zweibriicken, resulted in renewed reaction- ary measures. The German Diet, at the instance of Metter- nich, declared that the refusal of taxes by any legislature would be treated as an act of rebellion. All political meet- ings and associations were forbidden and the public press was gagged. The excesses of Dom -Miguel's followers in Portugal were followed by more serious international results. A series of wanton attacks upon foreign subjects in Lisbon called for outside intervention. English and French squadrons ap- peared in the Tagus. Lord Palmerston, the British Foreign Secretary, declared himself satisfied after Portugal had 531 1932 IBRAHIM TAKES ACRE apologized and paid an indemnity to the British sufferer8. The French admiral, unable to obtain quick redress, carried off the best ships of the Portuguese navy. The worst result for Dom Miguel was the foreign encouragement given to his brother, Emperor Pedro of Brazil, who was preparing an expedition against him in the Azores. Some of the best British naval officers and veterans of the Peninsular War were permitted to enlist under Dom Pedro's banner. Cap- tain Charles Napier took charge of Dom Pedro's navy. In July a landing was made near Oporto, and that important city was captured by Dom Pedro's forces. Dom Miguel was constrained to lay siege to Oporto. Thus the civil war in Portugal dragged on. The most formidable revolt of the year was that of Me- hemet Ali, the Viceroy of Egypt, against his suzerain, Sul- tan Mahmoud of Turkey. The disappointing results of Egypt's participation in Turkey's war in Greece left Mehe- met Ali dissatisfied. He considered the acquisition of Crete by Egypt but a poor recompense for the loss of his fleet at Navarino. A quarrel with the Pasha of Acre, Abdallah, gave iMehemet Ali a chance for Egyptian aggrandizement in that direction. Egyptian forces under the command of Mehe- met Ali's adopted son Ibrahim marched into Palestine and laid siege to Acre. That stronghold resisted with the same stubbornness that Bonaparte had encountered years before. The protracted struggle there gave the Sultan time to pre- pare an expedition wherewith to intervene between his war- ring vassals. He took the part of the Pasha of Acre. A proclamation was issued declaring Mehemet Ali and his son rebels. A Turkish army under Hussain Pasha entered Syria. The fall of Acre, while the relieving army was still near Antioch, enabled Tbrahim to throw his full force against the Turks. In the valley of the Orontes'the two forces met. The Turkish vanguard was routed and the Turkish main col- 532 182 JACKSON VETOES NATIONAL BANK CHARTER 1832 umn fell back on Aleppo, leaving Antioch and all the surn rounding country to the Egyptians. The Pasha of Aleppo, won over by iMehemet Ali, closed the gates of his city against Hussain's disordered forces. The Turks retreated into the mountains between Syria and Cilicia. The Egyptians pur- sued. At the pass of Beilan a stand was made by Hussain. The fierce mountain tribes turned against him, and with their help Ibrahim won a signal victory over the Turks on July 29. The retreat continued through Cilicia far into Asia Minor. After several months a new Turkish army under Reshid Pasha, Ibrahim's colleague in the siege of Mis- solonghi, advanced from the north. A pitched battle was fought at Konieh on the 21st of December. The Turks were utterly routed. The army was dispersed and Reshid himself was made a prisoner. The road to Constantinople now lay open to Mehemet Ali. Sultan Mahmoud was so alarmed that he turned to his old adversary, Russia, for help. General Muravieff was summoned to Constantinople and was em- powered to make terms for Turkey with Mehemet Ali. Jackson's domestic policy during this year brought him into conflict with two powerful factors. One was the United States Bank at Philadelphia. Jackson disapproved of the bank on the ground that it failed to establish a sound and new form of currency. A financial panic had been caused by worthless paper currency issued by so-called "wildcat" banking institutions. A petition for the renewal of the Na- tional Bank's charter, which was to expire in 1836, was laid before the Senate. Both Houses passed a bill to that effect. Jackson vetoed it, and a two-thirds vote wherewith to over- ride his veto could not be obtained for the measure. Jack- son then ordered the bank's deposits removed. He read to the Cabinet a long paper, in which he accused the officers of the bank of mismanagement and corruption, and stated that he would assume the entire responsibility for the removal of 533 THE NULLIFICATION ORDINANCE the deposits. The bank made a stubborn fight and spent over 50,000 in defending itself. In the Senate Benton was the chief opponent of the bank and Webster was its principal defender. In December the President sent a message to Con- gress recommending the removal of the public funds from the National Bank to certain State banks. Congress refused to remove the funds. The passage of a new tariff law. on July 14, which was considered harmful to Southern interests, brought the Fed- eral Government into armed conflict with the South. On November 19 a State Convention met at Columbus, South Carolina, in response to a call of the Iegislature, and on the 24th a nullification ordinance was adopted. The tariff laws were declared unconstitutional, and therefore "null and void and no law, nor binding upon the State." On December 10 President Jackson issued a proclamation against nullifiers, threatening them with trial for treason. Governor Hamilton of South Carolina in reply warned citizens not to be diverted from their allegiance to their State by this Federal proclama- tion. Jackson summoned General Scott to Washington and sent a part of the army to Charleston with a ship of war to collect the revenues. On December 28 Calhoun resigned the Vice-Presidency on account of Jackson's proclamation. He was forthwith elected Senator from South Carolina. It was during this year that renewed troubles with the Seminoles in Florida resulted in one of the most serious Indian wars of the century. By the treaty of Fort Muller, in 1823, the Indians were to be confined to a reservation on the eastern peninsula, but the Territorial Legislature pe- titioned Congress for their removal. Finally, in 1832, the treaty of Payne's Landing stipulated that seven Seminole chiefs should examine the country assigned to the Creeks west of the Mississippi, and that if they could live amicably with the Creeks the Seminoles were to be removed within three 534 1832 CAPTURE OF BLACK RAWK1 years, surrendering their lands in Florida, and receiving an annuity of 15,000 and certain supplies. President Jackson sent a commission to the West to convince the seven chiefs that the country was eminently desirable, and a supplemen- tary treaty from these seven was obtained without consulting the rest of the Seminoles. Many Seminoles were opposed to moving west through fear of the Creeks. The Sacs and Foxes and Winnebago Indians of Wisconsin by treaty, in 1830, had ceded their lands to the United States, but they still refused to leave their territory. Governor Reynolds of Illinois called out troops to compel them to go to the lands set apart for them west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk returned, but was again driven off. In 1832 he caine back with a thousand warriors and Indian warfare broke out. Generals Scott and Atkinson were sent with troops to Rock Island. It was the first time that a steamboat was used as a military transport. The force was there divided. General Scott could effect nothing, but General Atkinson pushed on, and in August defeated the Indians and took Black Hawk and his two sons prisoners. In many other ways public attention was engrossed in America. On June 21 the Asiatic cholera appeared in New York with appalling results. The epidemic spread to Phil- adelphia, Albany, Rochester, and westward. A number of new railroads were opened in New York and Pennsylvania. The first horse-drawn street cars began running in New York. On July 2 the Agricultural Society of New York was founded, and the first public trial was held of Obett Hussy's new reaping machine, which Cyrus McCormick also claimed as his invention. The device was destined to give a tremen- dous impetus to agriculture in the development of the West- ern prairies. About the same time the last surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, Charles Carroll of Mary- land, died at the age of ninety-six. 535 1832 EVENTS OF 1833 Pro-Slavery and Anti-Catholic Riots in the United States-Congress Passes the "Compromise Tariff"-Death of Randolph-Gladstone's First Speech-Misgovernment of Ireland-Death of Wilberforce Tractarian Movement in Anglican Church-Discoveries in Electro- Magnetism-German States Adopt a Tariff Union-King of Bavaria Beautifies Munich-Progress of French Art and Literature-Treaty of Keteya, Engineered by France, Despoils Turkey of Syria-Sultan Turns to Czar and Makes Secret Treaty with Him Rendering Euxine a Closed Russian Sea-Dom Pedro Enters Lisbon-His Reign is Disturbed by Insurrections of the Pretender Don Carlos and of the Cuban Patriots Under Quesada. A T the very outset of this year the slavery cuestion burst into flame in America. The abolition movement IA X inaugurated by Garrison and Whittier in the North was in full sway. In the slave-holding States large rewards were offered for the apprehension of Garrison, Whittier, and others connected with the publication of the Boston "Lib- erator," Philadelphia "Freeman," and New York "Eman- cipator." The legislatures of Northern States were called upon to suppress anti-slavery societies by penal enactments. Governor Edward Everett of Massachusetts and Governor MarcN' of New York commended such legislation. Promi- nent Northern citizens traveling in the South were arrested, imprisoned, and flogged for flimsy reasons. At New York, Montpelier, Utica, Boston, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and Alton meetings were broken up, houses sacked, newspapers destroyed, and public halls burnt. Berry's "Philanthropist" at Cincinnati and Lovejoy's "Observer" at Alton were de- stroved, and Pennsylvania Hall at Philadelphia, a costly building intended for anti-slavery discussion, was burnt on the day after its dedication, at which a poem by Whittier bad been read. The firemen refused to extinguish the flames. In Boston Garrison was dragged through the streets with a rope around his neck. 536 THE "COMPROMISE TARIFF8 These events inspired Wendell Phillips, who was present at a meeting in Faneuil Hall, Boston, called to approve these outrages, to take an open stand in favor of the rights of the people, which were threatened, and give to the cause for thirty years his active brain and eloquent tongue. As a counterpart to the popular excesses in behalf of slavery, the Catholics of New England had to suffer persecu- tion. At Charlestown, in Massachusetts, a mob burnt the Ursuline Convent. Another indignation meeting was held at Faneuil Hall in Boston to denounce this outrage. As a concession to the Southern agitators, the American Congress, on February 26, adopted a so-called "Compromise tariff." The new bill cut down all duties of over twenty per cent by one-tenth of the surplus of each year, so as to bring about a uniform rate of twenty per cent within a decade. On the other hand, Congress passed a "force bill," which empowered the President to execute the revenue laws in South Carolina by force of arms. A State Convention in South Carolina for its part repealed the ordinance of nullification, but pro- ceeded to declare the new Federal force bill null and void. On May 24 John Randolph of Roanoke, Virginia, a de- scendant of Pocahontas, died at the age of sixty. He com- menced public life in 1799, and served thirty years in Congress. There he became distinguished for his eccentric conduct, his sharpness of wit, and his galling sarcasm, which made him feared by all parties. In 1830 Jackson appointed him Minister to Russia. In the extreme South the American settlers of Texas, aided by Davy Crockett's filibusters from the United States, began a war for independence against Mexico. The abolition of slaverv was likewise the most absorbing topic that came up during this year in the Parliament of England. Young Gladstone, the newly elected member from Newark, taunted with his father's slave-holding methods at 537 1 833 THE TRACTARIAN MOVEMENT Demerara, made his maiden speech in Parliament on this subject. One who heard the rising orator recorded: "Burke himself could not be more sympathetic, more earnest, and more strong." Another engrossing topic was that of Ireland. The state of Ireland at this period, as conceded by a Tory historian of modern England, was a disgrace to the history of the nineteenth century. So wretched was the govern- ment of this unhappy dependency that during the year 1832 alone nearly 1,500 people were murdered and robbed in Ire- land. Instead of giving to Ireland a better administration, Parliament passed another coercion bill. Tithes for the Protestant clergy were collected at the point of the bayonet. The cause of Ireland, as heretofore, was pleaded most elo- quently by Daniel O'Connell. He denounced the Irish Church bill as "the basest act which a national assembly could sanction." The spirit of the English aristocracy was indicated by the fact that a bill for relieving Jews from their civil disabilities was thrown out by the House of Lords. On July 26 William Wilberforce died in his seventy- fourth year. He lived long enough to hear that the bill for the abolition of slavery in the British colonies, to which he had devoted the greater part of his life, had passed its second reading, and that success was assured. Of all English advo- cates of human freedom he was the most persevering and faithful. After a distinguished Parliamentary career of forty-five years, he gave up all political ambitions to devote himself to the cause of humanity and religion. It was at this period of the ecclesiastical history of Eng- land that the Tractarian Movement began at Oxford. It is a significant fact that the "Tracts for the Times" appeared at Oxford within less than a year after the passage of the Reform Bill. The connection of the two movements has been revealed in Newman's "Apologia Pro Vita Sua." In Janu- ary Dr. Arnold, the celebrated headmaster at Rugby, pub. 528 1833 GERMAN STATES ADOPT ZOLLVEREIN lished his "Principles of Church Reform." He aimed at a reunion of all Christians within the pale of a great national church. In the discussion that followed, the foremost spirits were Newman, Froude, Dr. Pusey, and Keble, the sweet singer of the Church of England, whose "Christian Year" will live as long as that Church endures. Enlightened Englishmen were further stirred at this time by the publication of Robert Browning's "Pauline," a narrative in unusually virile verse, and by Edmund Kean's original creation of the character of "Othello." The new in- vention of steel pens first came into general use during this same year, as did Hansom's "safety cab," and Lord Brough- am's favorite style of carriage. Robert Brown, an English scientist, in the course of his microscopic studies of orchids happened to make the important discovery of the nucleus of cells. Joseph Saxton, an American, constructed the first electromagnetic machine in England. The invention of the electromagnetic telegraph is claimed for Gauss and Weber in Germany. The first telegraph actu- ally constructed and used was set up at G(ttingen. Among those who witnessed it was a young university student, Bis- marek by name, who had achieved quite a reputation among his fellows as a duelist. During the year Metternich arranged a series of meetings of the allied monarchs at Miinchengriitz, and of their min- isters and authorized representatives at Teplitz. The most beneficial measure agreed on was the comprehension of all German States in a tariff union known as the Zollverein. King Louis of Bavaria commemorated the accession of his son Otto to the throne of Greece by erecting a number of monumental buildings at IMunich in imitation of the archi- tecture of ancient Greece, and by mural paintings in the ar- cades of his palace garden depicting all the most famous places and incidents of the Greek struggle for independence. 539 1833 TREATY OF KETEYA In France a new impetus was likewise given to art. Jean Baptiste Leloir began his career as a painter of religious and historical subjects; Lecquereux, the great historical painter, stood already at the zenith of his power, and Corot's exquisite landscapes were receiving their full measure of appreciation. In French letters this year is noted for the first appearance of Balzac's "Eugenie Grandet" and Prosper Ml6rim6e's "Double Erreur." Legendre, the great French mathematician, died during this year. It was the foreign policy of France to supplant Russia as mediator between Turkey and Egypt. Admiral Roussin had made it plain to the Sultan that if Syria could not be reconquered from the rebellious Mehemet Ali except by Russian forces the province was more than lost to Turkey. Accordingly, a French envoy was sent to Mehemet's victo- rious son, Ibrahim, with powers to conclude peace on any terms. The French suggestions were adopted on April 10, in the treaty of Keteya. The Sultan made over to his viceroy all of Syria and a part of Adana. The Egyptians consented to leave Anatolia. The Sultan took the spoliation so mnuch to heart that he turned from France. Once more he entered into negotiations with Russia. Russian warships were per- mitted to enter the Dardanelles, and Russian troops camped side by side with the Turks on the east bank of the Bos- phorus. A secret treaty for defence and offence was con- cluded between Russia and Turkey at the palace of Unkiar- skelessi. The Porte undertook to close the Dardanelles to the warships of all other nations whenever Russia should be at war. Thus the entrance to the Black Sea was made prac- tically a Russian stronghold. As soon as the purport of this treaty was apprehended it had the effect of uniting the rest of Europe against Russia-notably France and England. Henceforth Russia's ascendency in the East was watched by the chancelleries of Europe with growing suspicion. Sultan 540 1833 THE CARLIST WAR Mahmoud set himself seriously to reorganize his army after Western models. Following the example of -Mehemet Ali, he summoned foreign officers to his general staff. It was then that Moltke, the subsequent strategist of Germany, entered Turkish service. Lord Napier's namesake, Captain Charles Napier, had won fresh laurels in the Portuguese war for the succession to the throne. In command of the fleet fitted out by Dom Pedro of Brazil he attacked and annihilated Dom Miguel's navy off St. Vincent. Napier's colleague, Villa Flor, landed his forces and marched on Lisbon. The resistance of Dom Miguel's forces was overcome. On July 28 Dom Pedro was able to enter Lisbon as a victor. Still the struggle went on. Among those who linked themselves with Dom Miguel was Don Carlos, the rebellious pretender to the throne of Spain. Upon the death of King Ferdinand VII, in September, and the coronation of the Infanta Isabella as Queen of Spain under a regency, Don Carlos was proclaimed King by his followers. The Basque provinces declared in his favor. Civil war began. Had Don Carlos crossed the border at once he might have captured his crown. Unfortunately for his cause, he lingered in Portugal until the end of the year. The regency of Spain, in the face of this embarrassment at home, was called upon to proceed energetically against a revolu- tionary rising in Cuba under the leadership of Manuel Que- sada. Henceforth the Pearl of the Antilles was no longer the "ever-faithful Isle." 541 1833 EVENTS OF 1834 Death of Pedro IV is Followed by Reactionary Regency-Carlos, Span- ish Pretender, Joins Forces with Miguel, Portuguese Claimant- Against These the Established Governments Unite-Miguel is Bought Off and Carlos Flees to England-Carlos Returns and Joins Zumalacarregui, a Brigand Chief-They Defeat Spanish Troops Under Valdes-England and France Refuse to Intervene-Labor Strikes Lead to Insurrections in French Cities-Dismissal and Recall of Ministers-Death of Lafayette-Rise of Painter Delacroix -Deaths of Lamb and Coleridge-English Lords Block All Reform Legislation-King Interferes with Legislation and Grey Resigns- Melbourne Forms New Cabinet-Chinese Boycott English to Stop Opium Trade-They Fire on English Ships-English Troops Under Napier are Forced to Retire-Peel Succeeds Melbourne-Election Ordered-American Government Violates Constitutional Rights of Abolitionists-Specie Payments are Resumed-Congress Censures President for Removal of Government Funds from National Bank to "Pet Banks"-Emancipation of Slaves in British Colonies. T THE death of Pedro IV, the Emperor of Brazil and claimant King of Portugal, made matters worse in Portugal. Diego Antonio Fergio set himself up as Regent. Monasteries were suppressed and the Society of Jesus was expelled from the kingdom. Dom Miguel con- tinued his fight for the throne. Don Carlos, the Spanish pretender, remained with him. The situation grew so threatening for the established governments in Portugal and Spain that they, too, combined for mutual defense. Queen- Regent Christina of Spain found that she would have to rely for support upon the Spanish Liberals. Martinez de la Rosa was made Prime Minister. His first measure was to give his country a constitution, which was ratified, on April 10, by royal statute. He then entered into negotiations with Portugal as well as with England and France to crush the two rebellious pretenders by a combined effort. On April 22 a fourfold treaty was signed at London by the terms of which the Spanish and Portuguese Governments undertook to pro- ceed conjointly against Miguel and Carlos. England prom- ised to cooperate with her fleet. France agreed to send an 542 ZUMALACARREGUI JOINS DON CARLOS army into the Peninsula if called upon. Before the treaty had been ratified even by the English Parliament and French Chamber, General Rodil marched a Spanish division into Portugal. Dom Miguel's forces were driven before him. The threatening demonstrations of British cruisers and the simultaneous publication of the terms of the quadruple alli- ance in Lisbon and Madrid cowed the revolutionists. On May 22 Dom Miguel yielded. On the promise of a hand- some pension, he renounced his rights to the throne of Bra- ganza and agreed to leave Portugal forever. Don Carlos, while declining thus to sell his rights, took refuge with the British admiral on his flagship and was taken to London. This shrewd move left matters open in Spain. The pre- tender had not been made a prisoner of war, nor was he placed under any constraint or obligations. After a short residence in England he crossed the Channel, and, traveling through France in disguise, reappeared on July 10 in Na- varre, where Zumalacarregui, a brigand chief of considerable military ability, was conducting brilliant operations against the Spanish Government forces. Of the detachments sent against him one after another was defeated in the mountains of Navarre. The Spanish Minister, Valdes, himself took the field. His attempt to operate in Navarre with a large army resulted in the worst defeat that had yet befallen the Government forces. Zumalacarregui prepared to cross the Ebro to march upon Madrid. The Spanish Ministry in alarm turned to its allies for aid. The English Government would render no further aid beyond that already given by the British squadron in Span- ish waters. Permission, however, was granted to enroll vol- unteers for the Spanish cause in England and in Ireland. Colonel Delacey Ebbons raised a corps of needy adventurers, and, having been supplied with arms and funds, crossed over to Spain. The first appeal for French intervention resulted 543 1834 DEATH OF LAFAYETTE: in like failure. France had cause to hesitate before embark- ing in another Peninsular War. A large party in France, moreover, was in sympathy with Don Carlos. The Spanish Government was informed that French military assistance, under the circumstances, was impossible. The first result of this refusal was the downfall of La Rosa's Ministry in Spain. The civil war continued. In France domestic troubles rather than international questions were the problems of the day. On April 5 a vio- lent outbreak had been precipitated by Mazzini among the workingmen of Lyons, which arose from a labor strike in- volving thousands. Soon the whole city was in uproar. Barricades were thrown up. Blood was shed in hand-to- hand fights with the troops. Similar outbreaks had been prepared at Marseilles and other French cities of the south. The insurrection spread to Paris. On April 13 a conflict of some workmen with the troops was followed by the build- ing of barricades all over the city. The revolt was ruth- lessly suppressed by General Bugeaud, the commandant of Paris, who was henceforth denounced as a butcher. After it was all over the Ministry of Duc de Broglie fell in conse- quence of an adverse vote of the Chambers on the subject of the indemnities due to America. The succeeding Min- istry lasted just three days. Then came the recall of Thiers, Guizot, Duchatel, Humann, and Rigny. Marshal Mortier became President of the Council. The Chamber of Deputies was dissolved. The aged Prince Talleyrand quitted the em- bassy at London. A proposal to form a Ministry headed by Marquis de la Fayette for the last time brought the name of that venerable hero into the public affairs of France. Shortly afterward he died in peace at La Grange, surrounded by his children and calling for his dead wife. He was quietly buried in the graveyard of Piepus, consecrated to the memory of the victims of the Terror. 544 1834 SALON PAINTINGS OF DELAROCHE The name of Lafayette is indissolubly linked with the cause of the American Revolution and struggle for indepen- dence. To join the revolutionists' cause Lafayette not only had to sacrifice his private fortune and brilliant prospects at home, but also to leave a young, dearly-loved wife with an unborn babe. Throughout the weary struggle of America against the overwhelming power of England, Lafayette, to- gether with Kosciusko and De Kalb, stood by Washington and the cause for which be had drawn his sword. Lafayette's presence in the American army, and the example of his con- stant financial sacrifices for the American cause, were instru- mental in winning France over to that offensive alliance against England which helped to turn the tide of war against that country. Throughout his subsequent career Lafayette sustained the reputation he had won in early manhood. He was one of the few prominent figures of the French Revolu- tion who emerged from that ordeal with untainted reputa- tion. From then until his closing days he was the foremost champion of liberal thought and political freedom in France. Another distinguished Frenchman who died during this year was Jacquard, the inventor of the loom which bears his name. In the French Salon in spring "The Execution of Lady Jane Grey in the Tower," by Paul Hippolyte Dela- roche, took the highest prize. The picture was a happy me- dium between the ultra-romantic method of Delacroix and the classicism of David. Three years previous to this Dela- roche sent to the Salon his famous paintings "Cromwell at the Bier of Charles I" and "The Children of Edward IV in the Tower." At this same time he was engaged on the great- est of his works, "The Hemicycle," now in the Hall of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. England lost three men prominent in letters, Blackwood, Lamb, and Coleridge. Blackwood founded the "Edinburgh Magazine," in 1817, and maintained it until his death. 545 1834 LAMB AND COLERIDGE Charles Lamb appeared in the world of letters as "Elia," a fancifully adopted name of an Italian fellow clerk at the South Sea House, where Lamb served his literary appren- ticeship. While serving as a clerk for the South Sea Com- pany he published his first poems at the age of twenty-two, followed shortly by "Rosamond Gray" and "John Wood- ville," at the beginning of the century. With his sister Mary he shared in the publication of the two children's books, "Tales from Shakespeare" (1806) and "Poetry for Chil- dren" (1809). During this same period he compiled and edited the famous "Specimens of Dramatic Poets Contem- porary with Shakespeare." The "Essays of Elia," which made Lamb's reputation, did not appear until 1823. The charm of these essays is a frank note of autobiography tem- pered by a kindly humor and whimsicality peculiar to Lamb. His fond appreciation of the poetry of Elizabethan days, as revealed in these essays, was instrumental in bringing about that revival of Shakespeare and old English poetry which set in early in the nineteenth century. His friend Coleridge died in the same year. Samuel Taylor Coleridge was born in 1772 at Ottery St. Mary, in Devonshire, the son of a clergyman. He studied at Cambridge and then went to London, where he enlisted as a trooper in a regiment of dragoons. Finding military service uncongenial, he obtained a discharge and devoted himself to literature. Together with Southey and Lovell he undertook to found a communistic colony on the banks of the Susquehanna in America. The project failed from lack of money. The three friends married the three sisters Fricker of Bristol and settled in Stowey. There Coleridge, Southey, and Wordsworth founded their so-called "Lake School of Poetry." In the same year Coleridge brought out the famous "Rime of the Ancient Mariner," his "Odes," and wrote his first version of "Christabel." The period at 546 1834 THE KING MEDDLES IN POLITICS Nether Stowey, from 1797 to 1798, was Coleridge's most fruitful year as a poet. All his best poetic works had their origin at that time. After his twenty-fifth year Coleridge's poetic qualities declined. As a result of his travels in Ger- many he published, in 1800, a translation of Schiller's ' Wal- lenstein," after which he reluctantly undertook to edit the "'Morning Post," a Government organ. In 1804 he went to Malta as secretary of Governor Ball. Swinburne has said of Coleridge: "For height and perfection of imaginative quality he is the greatest of lyric poets; this was his special power and is his special praise." In English literary annals this year is noted likewise for the appearance of Carlyle's "Sartor Resartus." A Parliamentary bill admitting dissenters to university honors in England was thrown out by the House of Lords. Another bill for the removal of the civil disabilities of the Jews was again carried in the Lower House only to be re- jected by the Lords. Next, another coercion bill against Ireland was introduced by the Ministry early in July. In the Commons much fault was found with the Governments manner of dealing with Irish questions. In spite of the concessions to O'Connell, that formidable leader had not been won over. The Tories held that the Ministry had gone altogether too far. At this critical moment, on the King's birthday, the Irish prelates, with the Primate at their head, presented an address signed by fourteen Irish clergymen in which they deprecated the proposed changes in the discipline of the Church in Ireland. Instead of leaving the reply to his Ministers, the King answered it in person, saving among other significant utterances: "'Toleration must not be suffered to go into licentiousness." This speech was received faith transports of joy by the opposition. Earl Grey and his colleagues, on July 9, handed in their resignation. Viscount Melbourne was called in with a heterogeneous Cabinet. 547 1834 OPIUM TRADE FORCED ON CHINA During this interregnum, on October 16, the two Housee of Parliament burned down. The most serious of the many embarrassments inherited from the Administration of Grey was the trouble with China, that had arisen out of the East India Company's opium trade in the Far East. When the charter of the East India Company was renewed in 1834, it was shorn of its monopoly of this trade. The consequent extension of the trade in opium, so strenuously opposed by the Chinese Gov- ernment, incensed Emperor Taouk-Wang. Lord Napier, the new British Commissioner, reached the Canton River in July. His instructions from Lord Palmerston were to foster the English opium trade not only at Canton, but to demand an extension of the trade to other parts of the Chinese Em- pire. The Chinese mandarins, under instructions from the Viceroy of Canton, refused to have anything to do with Napier. He was lampooned in Chinese prints as "the for- eign eye," and the Viceroy issued an edict forbidding the British Commissioner to proceed up the river. All trade with English merchants was suspended, and in defiance Lord Napier left Macao, and sailing up the river, made his way to the English factory at Canton. There he found himself isolated. An Imperial proclamation declared that the na- tional dignity was at stake, and ordered all Chinese subjects to keep away from the Englishmen. The Canton factory was deserted by all of its coolies and domestic servants. Lord Napier, ailing in health as he was, found his posi- tion untenable. He sent a defiance to the Viceroy of Can- ton: "The merchants of Great Britain wish to trade with all China on principles of mutual benefit. They will never relax in their exertions until they gain this. The Viceroy will find it as easy to stop the current of the Canton River as to carry into effect his insane determination." After this the Viceroy sent his troops into the foreign settlements, and 548 1834 THlE ATHERTON GAG ordered the Bogue forts to fire on any English ship that at- tempted to pass. On September 5 two British ships in the river were fired upon by the Chinese. The English mer- chants petitioned Lord Napier to retire to Macao. This he did with a futile protest against China's acts "of uinprece- dented tyranny and injustice." Lord Napier died, leaving to others the settlement of the difficulties which his presence had intensified. The death of Earl Spencer, which raised Lord Althorp, his son, to the Upper House, gave the King a chance to get rid of his new advisers. When Lord Melbourne, on Novem- ber 14, submitted to the King the changes he proposed to make in the Ministry in consequence of the vacancies in the Exchequer, William IV expressed his disapproval and called in the Duke of Wellington in his stead. The Duke advised that the task of forming a new Cabinet be entrusted to Sir Robert Peel, then in Rome. Sir Robert arrived in London on December 9, and at once accepted the task imposed on him. The opposition against his new-formed Ministry was so strong that it was decided to appeal to the country. On December 30 Parliament was dissolved. In North America the contest between the Northern and Southern States in regard to slavery steadily gathered force. President Jackson, in his annual message, called attention to "the fearful excitement produced in the South by attempts to circulate through the mails inflammatory appeals ad- dressed to the slaves." The Federal postmasters of the South and in several cities of the North -were encouraged in the practice of rifling the mails of possibly offensive matter. John Quincy Adams -was threatened with public censure at the bar of the house for proposing to print a petition for freedmen. All attempts to get such petitions before Con- gress were defeated by a standing rule known as the Atherton Gag. During this year the national debt was almost liqui- XIXth Century--Vol. I-6 549 1834 1834 GREAT BRITAIN FREES SLAVES IN COLONIES dated by Jackson's payment of 4,760,082. A measure was passed through Congress establishing the value of gold and silver. Gold flowed into the Treasury through all channels of commerce. The mint was kept busy, and specie payments, which had been suspended for thirty years, -were resumed. Gold and silver became the recognized currency of the land. The President's measures against the National Bank were less successful. On March 28 the Senate debated Clay's resolution censuring the President for his removal of the Government deposits to selected private banks-'"'pet banks" the opposition called them, implying favoritism in choice. A joint resolution by both Houses of Co-igress was passed, in the Senate, June 3, by a vote of 29 to 10. Other events of the year of interest to Americans were the popular riots that threw New York into a turmoil on the occasion of the first mayoraltv election in that city, the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Legislature of Illinois, the establishment of the Indian Territory, and the first appearance of Bancroft's "History of the United States." Of world-wide interest was the emancipation of all slaves in the British West Indies, South Africa, and other colonies; the establishment of the German tariff union, including all German States except Austria; the transfer of the capital of Greece from Nauplia to the site of Athens; the foundation of the free university of Brussels, and the death of the great German theologian Schleiermacher. An innovation that was destined to add to the convenience and comfort of domestic life throughout the world was the introduction of lucifer matches. 550 EVENTS OF 1835 Peel's Ministry Defeated on Question of Disposing Revenues of Irish Church-Melbourne Recalled-South Australia Made a Crown Colony-Irishmen Charge Duke of Cumberland with Conspiracy with Orange Lodges to Supplant His Niece Victoria in Ileirship to Throne The Lodges are Dissolved-Boundary Disputes in South Africa Cause War with Zulu Chief Dingaan-Boers Trek Over Orange River to Escape English Rule-Various Spanish-American Revolutions-Texas Secedes from Mexico-Americans Aid Texans to Win Battle of Gonzales United States Government Quibbles Over Treaty with Seminoles-Osceola's Defiance-Death of Marshall -Death of Francis I of Austria-Ferdinand I Succeeds Him- Metternich Continues Policy of Absolutism-Death of Karl von Humboldt-Activity In Literature and Music in France Repres- sion of Liberty of Press is Followed by Attempts on Life of Louis Philippe Fieschi's Infernal Machine Kills Dignitaries Surround- ing the King-Expedition against Revolting Algerians---Atto of Greece Dissolves Regency and Takes Throne-Osceola Surprises United States Forces Under Thompson and Dade-Clinch Revenge. Them in Battle on the Big Withlacoochee. O i N February 19 Parliament reassembled. It was found that a working majority of Tories had been returned, but the first vote on the King's speech revealed a junction of the Whigs with O'Connell's Irish party, which foreboded disaster to the Government. For the first time in Parliamentary history the Irish members held the balance of power. In vain did Sir Robert Peel attempt to stave off his downfall by the introduction of wel- come measures of reform. Once more it was on a question affecting Ireland that the Government was defeated, Lord Russell of the Opposition moved that the surplus revenues of the Irish Church be used for non-ecclesiastical purposes. Gladstone spoke strongly against the measure. For this early speech, embodying as it did views so radically different from those of his later life, he was constantly reproached during his career. O'Connell said in favor of the motion: "I shall content myself with laying down the broad principle that the emoluments of a church ought not to be raised from a people who do not belong to it." 551 8 5EATH OF COBBETT The Government was defeated by a majority of thirty- three. On April 8 the resignation of the Ministry was an- nounced to Parliament. The King sent for Earl Grey, and, on his refusal to form a Ministry, was driven to the humili- ating expedient of recalling Lord Melbourne. On April 18 a new Cabinet was formed, composed largely of the men who had been so summarily dismissed by the King a few months before. Lord Melbourne's second Administration was marked bv the elevation of the settlements of South Australia to a Crown colony. The city of Melbourne, which was founded that year, was named in his honor. An extraordinary career was ended, on June 18, by the death of William Cobbett, from overwork in Parliament. With but little school education, this remarkable man suc- ceeded in becoming not only one of the foremost prose writers of English, but the leader of a great popular party. During the early part of Lord M\elbourne's Administra- tion the discontent and irritation prevailing in Ireland were heightened by the agitation against the Orange lodges. The original purpose of these lodges had been to defend, against the Stuarts and their supporters, the Protestant ascendency which had begun with the reign of William of Orange. The lodges had grown in strength until, in 1835, it was estimated that they numbered 140,000 members in Ireland, and as many as 40,000 in London alone. The Grand Master of all the Orange lodges was no less a personage than the Duke of Cumberland, the King's brother. It was believed in Ire- land that a conspiracy existed on the part of the Orangemen to set aside the Princess Victoria, the next heir to the throne, in favor of the Duke of Cumberland. The subject was brought to the notice of Parliament by iHume and O'Connell, who drew special attention to the illegal introduction of Orangemen into the British army, under warrants signed by the Duke of Cumberland. The scandal grew to such an 552 1835 TEXAS REVOLTS FROM MEXICO extent that the Duke of Cumberland hastened to dissolve the order before a resolution condemning his conduct cotild pass through the Commons. In South Africa another war over boundary questions broke out between the Dutch and English settlers and the Kaffirs. Sir Benjamin d'cLrban advanced the frontier of Cape Colony to the Keir River. The Zulu chief, Dingaan, on the assassination of King Chaka, -who haLd welded together a confederation of warlike tribes, succeeded to his powers. In the midst of these difficulties an advance-guard of Boers, exasperated by Great Britain's abolition of the old Dutch moot courts, and of slavery in Cape Colony, trekked across the Orange River and founded a colony of their own. In South America political changes rapidly followed one upon the other. Rocafuerte seized the reins of power in Ecuador. About the same time General Rosas had himself reelected for fifteen years as dictator of the Argentine Re- public. President Santa Cruz of Bolivia made a raid into Peru, and in his absence the State of Bolivia promptly fell a prey to internal disorders. In Mexico General Santa Anna established his rule as dictator. The affairs of Texas soon demanded his attention. On December 20 Texas declared itself independent of Mexico. Support came from the United States. The revolution began with the battle of Gonzales, in which 500 Americans took part. The Mexicans were de- feated. Soon afterward Goliad and the strong citadel of Bexar, known as the Alamo, were taken and the Mexican forces dispersed. In the meanwhile the Seminole war in Florida had as- sumed a serious aspect. The chief Indian leader who op- posed the removal of the Seminoles west of the Mississippi was Osceola, son of a half-breed squaw and an Englishman. His wife, the daughter of a slave, had been seized and re- turned to her mother's master. Thenceforth Osceola became 553 1835 DEATH OF MARSHALL an uncompromising enemy of the whites. The Indian con- troversy with the American Government turned on the in- terpretation of a pronoun in the treaty of Payne's Landing. The continued quibbling so enraged Osceola that he drove his knife into the table, exclaiming: "The next treaty I will execute is with this." Among the intellectual and scientific achievements of this year in America must be reckoned Colt's invention of a revolver and the manufacture of pins. Longfellow brought out his "Outre-Mer," and Audubon published his "Birds of America." On December 16 a disastrous fire destroyed most of the commercial houses of New York City. In all 530 houses burned down and 18,000,000 worth of property was consumed. Chief-Justice Marshall of the United States Su- preme Court died during this year, eighty years of age. As a member of Congress, a Cabinet officer, and the foremost jurist of the United States, Marshall won lasting distinction. His ability as a writer was conspicuously displayed in his popular "Life of Washington." In Europe, in the meanwhile, there had been some sig- nificant changes. On March 2 Emperor Francis I of Austria died at the age of sixty-seven. The succession of Archduke Ferdinand to the throne produced no change in the national policy. Metternich was retained at the head of affairs. In this year died Karl Wilhelm von Humboldt, the diplomat, and brother to Alexander, the great German explorer and philosophic writer. Besides his services as a statesman at the time of the international conferences at Paris and Vi- enna, he is distinguished for his philological researches in the Basque and Kauri languages. About the same time Hans Christian Andersen, the Danish author, published his first collection of fairy tales. The book had an immediate suc- cess, and in its many translations achieved a world-wide reputation. 1835 FIESCHI'S WHOLESALE ASSASSINATION In France, too, notwithstanding political disturbances, fine arts and letters flourished. New creations appeared from the pens of Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Balzac, De Viply, and Alfred de Musset. Th6ophile Gautier brought out his mas- terpiece "Mademoiselle de Maupin." Among the musician3 at Paris, AMeyerbeer, Auber, Berlioz, Rossini, Bellini, Doni- zetti, Spontini, and Schapa were at the height of their ac- tivity. Politically it was a year of disturbances for France. The opening of the State trial of last year's conspirators be- fore the Chamber of Peers was followed by diatribes in the press. The liberties of the press -were further restricted. Then a studied attempt was made on the life of Louis Phi- lippe. At a grand review of the National Guards, on July 28, when the royal procession arrived on the Boulevard Temple, an infernal machine was set off by a Corsican named Fieschi. The King was saved only by the fact that he had bent down from his horse to receive a petition when the machine was discharged. Among those that were struck down were the Dukes of Orleans and Broglie, Marshal Mor- tier, General Verigily, and Captain Vilate. The perpetrators of the crime were put to death. A renewed uprising of Arab tribes under Abd-el-Kader necessitated another military campaign in Algeria. In America the Seminole war broke out again under the leadership of Mlicanopy and Osceola. On December 28 Osceola surprised General Wiley Thompson at Fort King. Thompson had wantonly laid Osceola in chains some time before. Now Osceola scalped his enemy with his own hands. On the samne day Major Dade, leading a relief expedition from Tampa Bay, was ambushed and overwhelmed near Wahoo Swaamp. Only four of his men escaped death. Within forty-eight hours, on the last day of the year, Gen- eral Clinch, commanding the troops in Florida, won a bloody fight on the banks of the Big Withlacoochee. 555 1835 EVENTS OF 1836 Creeks Rise and Massacre Settlers-They are Subdued by Scott and Deported-Call Fights Indecisive Battle with Seminoles at Wahoo Swamp-Hungarian and Transylvanian Diets Demand Reforms and are Dissolved by Metternich-Magyar Patriots are Imprisoned and Exiled-Boers under Retief Settle Natal-Zulus under Dingaan Traitorously Slay Retief and His Party-They Massacre Boer Laager at Weenen-Adelaide Founded in South Australia-Britain Seizes Aden-Santa Anna Retakes the Alamo after Heroic De- fence by Bowie and Crockett-Houston Defeats Mexicans at San Jacinto-He Captures Santa Anna and Extorts Recognition of Texan Independence, which People of Mexico Refuse to Ratify- Rebellious Cuba is Deprived of Representation in Cortes-Carlists Lose Battle of Vigo and Win Battles of San Sebastian and Bilboa -Revolution in Lisbon Gains Reestablishment of Constitution- Portugal Abolishes Slave Trade-England Permits Men Charged with Felony to Employ Counsel-Dickens Pleads in "Pickwick Papers" against Imprisonment for Debt-Death of James Mill- Wheatstone Telegraphs by Electro-Magnetic Apparatus Balfe, Mendelssohn, Meyerbeer, Gounod, and Chopin Produce Notable Musical Works-Death of Malibran the Contralto-Death of Am- pore the Physicist-Thiers Forms New French Ministry-Alibaud Attempts to Kill Louis Philippe-Algerians Drive Back French- Thiers's Plan for Intervention in Spain Opposed by the King- Thiers Resigns and Count Mole Forms New Ministry-Louis Na- poleon Appeals to Army for Recognition as Emperor-He is Ar- rested and Exiled to America-Van Buren Elected President- Congress Passes "Gag Law," Suppressing Anti-Slavery Agitation- Jackson's Order to Federal Agents to Receive Only Specie Causes Many Failures of "Wild-Cat" Banks-Death of Madison-Seminoles Sue for Peace-Many Models Destroyed in Burning of Patent Office-Railway Mileage at Close of Jackson's Administration. p NHROLTGHOUT this year the Seminole war dragged on. In May the Creeks in Georgia and Alabama aided the Seminoles in Florida by attack- ing the white settlers. Thousands fled for their lives from the savages. General Scott was now in chief command in the South, and he prosecuted the war with vigor. The Creeks were finally subdued, and during the summer several thou- sands of them were forcibly removed to their designated homes beyond the Mississippi. Governor Call of Georgia marched against the Seminoles with some two thousand men in October. A detachment of five hundred of these had a severe but indecisive contest (November 21) with the Indians 556 REVOLT OF MAGYAR DEPUTIES at Wahoo Swamp, in the neighborhood of General Dade's massacre. For many years during the long period when the Aus- trian Government did not dare to convoke the Diet, the Hun- garians in their county assemblies had opposed a steady resistance to the usurpations of the Crown. By banishing political discussion from the Diet to the county sessions, Met- ternich only intensified the provincial spirit of opposition which he thought to quell. When at last the Hungarian Diet reassembled at Pressburg, the new spirit showed itself in the demand of the Magyars for the substitution of their own language, in all public debates, for the older customary Latin. The Government speakers, who attempted to address the deputies in Latin, were howled down by the M agyars. When the Government forbade the publication of all Magyar speeches, Kossuth, one of the youngest of the deputies, cir- culated them in manuscript. After the dissolution of the Diet, in summer, he was punished for this act of defiance by a three years' imprisonment. The foremost leader of the Hungarian Liberals at this time was Count Scechenyi, a Magyar magnate of note. He it was that opened the Danube to steam navigation by the destruction of the rocks at Orsova, known as the Iron Gates, and to him, too, Hungary owes the bridge over the Danube that unites its double capital of Budapest and Ofen. Of the Hungarian noblemen he was one of the few who recognized the injustice of the anomalous institution which restricted Parliamentary representation to the noblemen, and absolved them at the same time from tax- ation. The new liberal spirit thus manifested was turned into revolutionary channels by Mfetternich himself. The dissolution of the Hungarian Diet and the subsequent im- prisonment of deputies whose persons should have been in- violable aroused bad blood among the Magyars. This was made worse by the peremptory dissolution of the Transylva- 557 1836 BOERS SETTLE NATAL nian Diet, where the Magyar element likewise predominated. The leader of the Transylvanian opposition, Count Vesse- lenyi, a magnate in Hungary, betook himself to his own county session and there inveighed against the Government. He was arrested and brought to trial before an Austrian court on charges of high treason. His plea of privilege was sup- ported by the Hungarian county sessions as involving one of their oldest established rights. In the face of this agita- tion Count Vesselenyi was convicted and sentenced to exile. Henceforth opposition to the Government and hostility to all things Austrian were synonymous with patriotism in Hungary. The discontent in Hungary and the Slav provinces of Austria was fomented by a keen sympathy with the misfor- tunes of Poland groaning under the yoke of Russia. Not- withstanding Austria's official conference with Russia, Polish refugees were received with open arms in Galicia, Bohemia, and Hungary. In South Africa the "Great Trek," or Boer exodus from Cape Colony, continued, in spite of the opposition of the British authorities. While one part of the emigrant body remained in the Transvaal and Northern Free State, the foretrekkers passed over the Drakensberg Mountains into Natal, under the leadership of Piet Retief. The land of Natal was at that time practically unpopulated. Chaka and his warriors had swept the country clean of its native inhab- itants, so Dingaan considered it within his sphere of influ- ence. The Boers accordingly made overtures to Dingaan, Chaka's successor, for the right to trek into this country. This was granted after the Boers had undertaken to restore some cattle of the Zulus stolen by the Basutos. A thousand prairie wagons containing Boer families trekked over the Drakensberg into Natal, and settled along the Upper Tu- gela and Mooi Rivers. Retief, with 65 followers, went to 558 1836 DEFENCE OF THE ALAMO visit Dingaan in his kraal. A solemn treaty of peace was ratified. During a feast the Boers, disarmed and unsuspect- ing, were suddenly massacred to a man. Then the Zulus, numbering some 10,000 warriors, swept oult into the veldt to attack the Boer settlements. Near Colenso, at a spot called Weenan (weeping), in remembrance of the tragedy there enacted, the Zulus overwhelmed the largest of the Boer laagers and slaughtered all its inmates-41 men, 56 women, 185 children, and 250 Kaffir slaves. In spite of this and other battles the Boers held their ground. The Englishmen likewise extended their colonial con- quests. The unsettled Butshland of South Australia was colonized by Captain Hindmarsh and his followers. They founded the city of Adelaide, named after the consort of William IV. A wrecked British ship having been plundered by Arabs, the Sultan of Aden, under a threat of British re- taliation, was made to cede Aden to Great Britain. Spain formally acknowledged the independence of Mex- ico, but this country was not disposed thereby to be equally generous to Texas. On the contrary, on March 6 Santa Anna, having raised a new force of 8,000 men, marched on Fort Alamo, which had been left in charge of a small gar- rison of Americans under Colonel Jim Bowie, from whom the "bowie-knife," his favorite weapon, has received its name. All night they fought. Every man fell at his post but seven, and these were killed while asking quarter. Here died David Crockett, the famous American frontiersman', whose exploits had made him so popular in Tennessee that, though unable to read, he was thrice elected to Congress. On April 21 was fought the decisive battle of San Ja- cinto, in which Santa Anna with 1,500 men was defeated by 800 Texans under Sam Houston. On the next day General Santa Anna was captured. He was compelled to acknowl- edge the independence of Texas, but the people of Mexico 559 1836 REFORMS IN ENGUSH LAW refused to ratify his act. None the less serious hostilities against the Texans were abandoned. The abolition of slavery in Bolivia gave a new impetus to the Government of that Republic. President Santa Cruz of Bolivia felt encouraged by this to attempt to carry out his pet project of the amalgamation of Peru with Bolivia. A prolonged guerrilla war was the result. The example of these movements in Central and South America encouraged the revolutionists of Cuba to keep up their struggle against the rule of Spain. The only result was that Cuba was deprived of her representation in the Spanish Cortes. In the Philippine Islands Spanish rule was extended to the Island of Sulu. On the Peninsula, on the other hand, matters went from bad to worse. The Car- list war continued unabated. On May 5 General Evans, com- manding the constitutional troops and foreign volunteers, won a victory over the Carlists at Vigo, but within a few months he was himself defeated at San Sebastian. On Christmas Day another crushing defeat was inflicted on the Constitu- tionalists by the Carlist leader Espertero at Bilboa. In Portugal the marriage of Princess Maria II to Prince Ferdi- nand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was followed by fresh disorders. Revolution broke out at Lisbon on August 9, and could be subdued only by the reestablishment of the Constitution of 1832. On November 8 came another popular rising. It was a sign of the times and of a more liberal turn of affairs at Lisbon that one of the first measures of the new Government was a total abolition of Portuguese slave trading. Reform of all kinds had become popular in England. One of the most barbarous practices of English and Irish law courts was abolished, the refusal of counsel to prisoners accused of felony. On the other hand a bill for the abolition of imprisonment for debt miscarried. The most potent plea against the abuses of this particular relic of barbarism in 560 1836 DEATH OF MALIBRAN England was put forth by Charles Dickens in his "Pickwick Papers." These serial papers relating the humorous adven- tures of -Mr. Pickwick and his body-servant Sam Weller, when brought in conflict with the English laws governing breach of marital promise and debt, had an immense success in England and all English-speaking countries. Already Dickens had published a series of "Sketches of London," under the pseudonym of Boz, while working as a Parlia- mentary reporter for the "Morning Chronicle." The sue- cess of the "Pickwick Papers" was such that he felt encour- aged to emerge from his pseudonym and to devote himself entirely to literature. The first Shakespeare jubilee was celebrated at Stratford-on-Avon in the spring. A loss to English letters was the death of James Mill, the great polit- ical economist, in his sixty-third year. About this time Wheatstone constructed his electromagnetic apparatus by which he could send signals over nearly four miles of wire. The Irish composer Balfe began his brilliant career as a composer of English operas with the "Siege of Rochelle," produced at Drury Lane in London. About the same time Mendelssohn brought out his "St. Paul" in Dusseldorf. Maria Felicita Malibran, the great contralto singer, died on September 23, at Manchester, in her twenty-eighth year. At the age of sixteen she made her debut as Rosina in "II Bar- biere di Seviglia" at London. Next she appeared in New York, where she was a popular favorite for two years. Here she married a French merchant, Malibran. After her sepa- ration from him she returned to Paris, where she was en- gaged as prima donna at a salary of 50,000 francs. There- after she sang at every season in Paris, London, Milan, Rome, and Naples. For one engagement of forty nights in Naples she received 100,000 francs. Both as a singer and woman she exercised an extraordinary fascination. Only a few months before her death she married the violinist De Beriot. 561 1836 DEATH OF AMPLRE In France great strides had been made in music, art, and literature. Giacomo Meyerbeer, whose real name was Jacob Beer, surpassed the success of his "Robert le Diable" with his greatest opera, "Les Huguenots," produced on Feb- ruary 20 at the Paris Opera House. Charles Franqois Gounod began his musical career by entering the Paris Con- servatory. Fr6d6ric Chopin, the Polish composer, at this time was at the height of his vogue as the most recherche pianist of Paris. He was the favorite of a circle of friends consisting of Meyerbeer, Bellini, Berlioz, Liszt, Balzac, and Heine. It was during this year that Liszt introduced Chopin to Madame Dudevant, better known as Georgle Sand, the famous French novelist. Their attachment was the talk of Paris. Andre Marie Ampere, the noted French mathema- tician and physicist, died during this year at sixty-one years of age. His discovery and mathematical expression of the laws of attraction and repulsion between electric currents laid the foundation of electrodynamics. The ampere, the practical unit of electric current strength, has been named in his honor. Politically it was a turbulent year for France. On the question of the budget the Ministry was defeated in January and had to resign. The new Ministry called in went to pieces on February 22, when Guizot and De Broglie retired from the Cabinet. Thiers was placed at the helm. On June 26 another attempt to assassinate the King was made by Louis Alibaud, a former soldier of the south who had taken part in the revolution of July. The military expedi- tion to Algeria under Marshal Clauzel and the Duke of Or- leans first met with distinguished success. The French army occupied Mascera. But later the unfortunate issue of an expedition against the town of Constantine caused the retire- ment of Marshal Clauzel as Governor-General of Algeria. Commander Changarnier at the head of a French battalion v 62 1836 LOUIS NAPOEON'S FIRST FIASCO was beaten back step by step by an overwhelming body of Achmet Bey's cavalry of the desert. The question of French intervention in Spain resulted in the downfall of the Min- istry of Thiers. King Louis Philippe, ever since Lord Palmerston's chilling reply to his overtures for joint inter- vention, was opposed to such a project. fie demanded the re- tirement of the French corps of observation in the Pyrenees. Thiers was utterly opposed to this. On September 6 the Cabinet resigned, having been in power but six months. Count Mole was charged with forming a new Ministry. A new cause of disquietude was given late in October by Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, son of Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, at Strasburg. On the last day of that month Louis Napoleon, with no other support than that of Persigny and Colonel Vauterey, paraded the streets of that town and presented himself at the barracks of the Fourth Regiment of artillery. He was received with the cry "Vive l'Empereur." An attempt to win over the soldiers of the other barracks failed. The young prince was arrested. Ex-Queen Hor- tense interceded in his behalf. The attempt to regain the Napoleonic crown had been so manifest a fiasco that Louis Philippe thought he could afford to be generous. Louis Na- poleon was permitted to take himself off to the United States of America with an annuity of fifteen thousand francs from the royal purse. His adherents were taken before the court at Colmar and were all acquitted by the jury. A simulta- neous military mutiny at Vendome was treated with like leniency. After the death of ex-King Charles X, Prince Polignac and other of his Ministers who had come to grief after the revolution of 1830 were sent out of the country. A general amnesty was announced. The arrival of Prince Louis Napoleon created little stir in the United States. The people there were in the midst of a Presidential election. President Jackson wished Vice- 563 1836 DEATH OF MADISON President Van Buren to be his successor. He therefore recommended that the Democratic nomination should be by national convention. The National Republicans had by this time generally adopted the name of Whigs. They supported William H. Harrison and John McLean of Ohio, with Dan- iel Webster of Massachusetts. The opposition hoped to throw the Presidential election into the House, but did not succeed in doing so. A majority of Van Buren electors were chosen. Congress met on December 5. President Jackson gave his sanction to a Congressional resolution in favor of the South, that "all petitions, memorials, and resolutions re- lating to slavery shall be laid on the table, and no further action whatever shall be had thereon." A select committee resolved that "Congress can not constitutionally interfere with slaverv in the United States and it ought not to do so." This so-called "Gag Law" was adopted by 117 over 68 votes. About this same time Congress accepted the bequest of James Smithson, an Englishman, who left 515,169 to be expended in America "for the general diffusion of knowledge among men." After the fall of the United States Bank a number of State banks were formed, many of which were without adequate capital. Their notes were used in large quantities for the purchase of public lands from the United States. Thereupon President Jackson issued the so-called specie cir- cular, ordering Federal agents to receive no other money but gold and silver. This caused such a demand for specie that many of these minor banks fell into difficulties. By the close of the year bank failures had become so numerous that a financial crisis was at hand. Ex-President James Madison died this year at the ripe age of eighty-five. He was born in Virginia, March 16, 1751. From the time of his election to Congress in 1779 he was a leader in the politics of the country. He advocated the adoption of the Constitution by a series of able essays 564 1836 SEMINOLES SUE FOR PEACE in the "Federalist," as well as in the debates in Congress. He was a mediator between the extreme Federalists such as Hamilton and the extreme Republicans such as Jefferson. He opposed the alien and sedition laws of 1798, and was the author of the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 directed against increase of Federal power by forced construction of the Constitution. Jefferson appointed him Secretary of State in 1801. His acts since then have already been re- corded in the present work. The military campaign against the Seminoles was far from satisfactory. Many of the soldiers sent into Georgia and Florida succumbed to disease. They had to abandon Forts King, Dane, and Micanopy, giving up a large tract to the Indians. The Indians were defeated in battle at New Mannsville, and in the fall of the year General Call rallied them on the Withlacoochee, but could not drive them into the Wahoo Swamp. A change in commanders was once more made, and Jesup succeeded Call. With 8,000 men he entered on a winter campaign. The Indians were forced from their positions on the Withlacoochee, and were pursued toward the Everglades, and at the end of 1836 sued for peace. On December 15 the Federal Post-Office and Patent- Office burnt down. Irreparable loss was caused by the de- struction of 7,000 models and 10,000 designs of new inven- tions. At the close of Jackson's administration some 3,000 miles of railroad had been constructed. Eight years pre- viously, when he came into office, no railway had ever been seen in America. 565 1836 EVENTS OF 1837 United States Treasury Recalls D)eposits from Private Banks-Financial Crisis Results-Congress Authorizes Issue of Treasury Notes, which Relieves the Situation-D)om lPedro's Constitution Restored in Por- tugal-Louis Philippe's Nepotism Causes Downfall of Guizot's Min- istry-Succeeding Ministry of Mole Proclaims General Amnesty- Notable Literary Events in France-Deaths of Fourier, Communist, and of Leopardi, Italian Poet-Pushkin, Russian Poet, is Killed in Duel-Lermentov, Russian Poet, is Exiled-Notable Literary and Industrial Events in Germany-Archbishop of Cologne Defies Prot- estant Authorities on Divorce Question-Death of William IV, King of Great Britain and Hanover-Victoria Succeeds to British Throne -Her Uncle Cumberland to Hanoverian-Cumberland Curbs Con- stitutional Liberty in Hanover-The Brilliant Victirian Era in En- glish Literature-New Inventions-Famine in India-Boers Crush Dingaan-Papineau and Mackenzie Lead Rebellion in Canada against British Bureaucracy-Rebels Seize Navy Island in Niagara River and Set Up Provisional Government-Loyalists Send Rebel Steamer "Carolina" Over Falls-Mackenzie's Rising is Suppressed by Militia. T HE financial crisis of this year was not only one of the most severe, but also the most remarkable in the historv of the United States. A Congressional act of the previous year provided that after January 1, 1837, all surplus revenues of the Government should be divided as loans among the States. The amount to be distributed this year aggregated 28,000,000. No part of this large sum was ever recalled. When the Government called for its de- posits in order to distribute the surplus an immediate shrink- age of specie was the result. As bank after bank suspended, it was found that the paper issue had increased from 51,- 000,000 in 1830 to 149,000,000 in 1837. Jackson's attacks on the National Bank had shaken public confidence in this institution, and it likewise suspended specie payments. The mercantile failures of a single fortnight in New York City amounted to 100,000,000. A repeal of Jackson's order that payments for public lands should be in coin filled the National Treasury with paper money. Congress met in spe- 566 MOLE'S MINISTRY SUCCEEDS GUIZOT'S cial session to relieve the financial distress. A law was passed authorizing the issue of 10,000,000 in Treasury notes. This brought some relief. President Van Buren's first message recommended the adoption by the Governiment, of the Sub-Treasury plan. A bill for the establishment of an independent treasury passed the Senate, but was defeated in the House by a union of Whigs and Conservatives. The Sub-Treasury plan, as eventually carried out, provided for complete separation of the National Bank and the Govern- ment, and established the principle that the Government rev- enues should be received in coin only. President Van Buren in his message specially deprecated any interference in the struggle between Texas and Mexico, and his adherents in Congress voted down a bill to that effect. In Mexico Bustamente had again become President In the neighboring State of Colombia President Marquez, like- wise, had himself reelected. The influence of North Amer- ican progress was shown in Cuba by the opening of the first railway there, long before the mother country, Spain, could boast of such an advance in civilization. There the civil war was still draining the resources of the country. On May 17 General Evans took Trun, but failed to follow up his success. In Portugal the restoration of Pedro's Charta de Ley was proclaimed by the Duke of Terceira. In France an unfortunate attempt to fix large dowries on the Duc de Nemours and the Queen of the Belgians raised an outcry against the private avarice of the King. As the result of the ministerial crisis that followed the defeat of these measures in the Chambers Guizot had to retire from the Ministry. Mole remained in charge with the reconsti- tuted Cabinet. The success of a second expedition against the town of Constantine, in which the Duc de Nemours gained distinction, invested Mole's new Ministry with a cer- tain popularity. Measures for a general political amnesty 567 1837 DEATH OF LEOPARDI were readily voted by the Chambers. The people of Paris were kept amused first by the marriage of the Duc d'Or- leans to Princess Helene of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and by the subsequent wedding of Princess Marie d'Orleans, the amateur sculptress, to Duke Alexander of Wurtemburg, a dilettante, like herself, in letters. The occasion provoked the German poet Heine, then lying ill at Paris, to some of his most pungent witticisms. Ailing though he was, Heine was made a member of the new "Society of Men of Letters," founded by Balzac, Lamennais, Dumas, and Georges Sand. Further events in French letters were the publication of Eugene Sue's "Latr6aumont" and the appearance of the early part of Michelet's "History of France." Franuois Charles Marie Fourier, the philosophic writer and follower of St. Simon, died in his sixty-fifth year. Before his death his well-elaborated system of communism, as put forward in his "Treatise on Household and Agricultural Association," had found general acceptance among the French radicals. Count Giacomo Leopardi, the foremost lyric poet of modern Italy, died on June 14. Leopardi's genius was tinc- tured with pessimism. Like Byron, he was powerfully moved by the painful contrast between the classic grandeur of ancient Italy and the degeneracy of its latter days. His earliest verses, such as the fine "Ode to Italy," and his poem on a projected monument for Dante, already contained the strain of sadness that ran through all his later poems. In 1825 he took part in bringing out the famous "Antologia" at Florence, and also issued an edition of Petrarch and two col- lections of Italian verse. Russia lost her foremost man of letters at this period by the death of Count Alexander Sergeyevitch Pushkin, as the result of a duel. His last work, the drama "Boris Goudu- nor" was left uncompleted. After his recall from his exile in Bessarabia, Pushkin had been appointed as imperial his- 568 1837 DEATH OF WVILLIAMI IV torian by Czar Nicholas, in which capacity he wrote a his- torv of Peter the Great and an account of the conspiracy of Pugatshev. Of his poetic works the most important was "Eugene Onegin," an epic written after the manner of B1yron's "Don Juan." Pushkin's brother poet Lermontov, then an officer of the Guards, wrote a poem demanding ven- geance for Pushkin's death. He was banished to the Cau- casus, and his writings were suppressed. A joyful event in German letters was the great festival at Mlainz in honor of Gutenberg and his invention of the art of printing. Froebel opened his first kindergarten at Blankenburg in Thuringia. Anerbach, the popular novelist, brought out his "Spinoza." Much was made by Germans of the opening of the first railway between Dresden and Leip- zig, and of the invention of coal-tar colors, or aniline dyes, by a process destined to revolutionize the arts of color- ing and dyeing throughout the world. A great stir was created by the imprisonment of the Archbishop of Cologne at Minden after a quarrel with the Prussian Government concerning marriages between persons of different creeds. He was forbidden to go to Bonn. Backed by the Holy See in Rome, he continued to defy the Protestant authorities. A change of rule, fraught with future consequences for Hanover, resulted from the death of William IV, King of England and Hanover, on the 20th of June. By the death of the old King, his niece, Victoria Alexandrina, then in her eighteenth year, became Queen of England. The first signature to the Act of Allegiance was that of Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, eldest surviving brother of the late King William. To him passed the crown of Han- over, which for a hundred and twenty-five years had been held by the occupants of the British throne. Under the Salic law, restricting succession to the male line, Hanover now became separated from England. On June 28 the new 569 1837 ACCESSION OF VICTORIA King arrived in Hanover. He refused to receive the depu- tation of the Estates that had come to greet him. Dispensing with the formality of taking the required oath to the Consti- tution, he dissolved the Estates. The validity of the Hano- verian Constitution was next called in question, and the restoration of the less liberal constitution of 1819 was or- dained. The first to protest against this royal breach of faith were seven professors of the University of Gottingen. Among them were the two brothers Grimm, to whom the German language and literature are so deeply indebted, and Gervinus, the great historian of modern Europe. The pro- fessors were instantly dismissed. This high-handed act pro- voked an insurrection among the students, which had to be quelled by troops, with bloodshed. The departure of the unpopular Duke of Cumberland and the dissolution of the embarrassing connection with Hanover brought distinct relief to the people of England. According to usage on the accession of a new sovereign, Par- liament was dissolved, in this instance by the Queen in per- son. She drove to the House of Lords in state, and created a sensation by her youth and graciousness. What she said of her own good intentions, her confidence in the wisdom of Parliament and the love of her people and her trust in God, was reechoed throughout the English dominion. Her popu- larity speedily became unbounded. The change in the per- son of the sovereign was a great advantage for the Melbourne Ministry. They had no longer to fear such a summary dis- missal or interference by the throne as they had suffered during the last reign. The dissolution of Parliament only resulted in their favor. The Tories were in despair. The departure of the Duke of Cumberland left them without a power behind the throne. Wellington regarded the accession of a female sovereign a bar to his return to power. He said: "I have no small talk, and Peel has no manners." 570 1837 PROGRESS IN LITERATURE AND SCIENCE The Victorian era in England, a period comparable for brilliancy only to that of Queen Elizabeth, began indeed under auspicious circumstances. In the field of letters there was the galaxy of diverse spirits: Southey, Wordsworth, Tennyson, and Browning. A new start was given to English prose by such powerful writers as Lord M acaulay, Carlyle, Charles Dickens, and William -Makepeace Thackeray, who brought out his "Yellowplush Papers" this very year. An- other newcomer in the field of romance -was the Irish novelist, Charles James Lever, whose early "Adventures of Harry Lorrequer" found instant favor. Among the women writers were Maria Edgeworth, Jane Austen, and Elizabeth Bar- rett. Great strides were also made in science. Shortly after the appearance of Whewell's "History of Inductive Sciences," the Ornithological and Electrical Societies were founded at London. The principle of working clocks by electricity was advanced by Alexander Bain. Wheatstone and Cooke in- vented the magnetic needle telegraph. Ericsson's new screw steamer "Francis Bogden" was found to develop a speed of ten miles an hour. John Upton patented his steam plow, and Fox Talbot made the first photographic prints on paper. When Parliament was reconvened, Lord Macaulay was added to the Cabinet. In the northwestern provinces of East India a widespread famine, which cost the lives of 8,000 natives, necessitated relief measures on a large scale. In the midst of these troubles the death of the ruling King of Delhi caused a vacancy, which was filled by Mahmoud Bahadour Shah, the last titular Great Mogul under the protection of the British Colonial Government. In South Africa some measure of home rule was accorded to Cape Colony by the institution of a representative legislative council under a governor appointed by the Crown. To the north of Cape Colony the Boer emigrants carried on their war of revenge against the Zulus. In a fierce battle on December 16 at 571 1837 NEPOTISM IN CANADA Blood River, the Boers under Maritz and Potgieter utterly defeated Dinaan's warriors. Pantah, the brother of Din- gaan, became King of the Zulus. The anniversary of this battle was ever after celebrated as a holiday by the Beers. A settlement was founded in the conquered land, and the first church was built on the site of Pietermaritzburg, named after the Boer leaderis (On December 22 the British Parlianent reeived the news of rebellion in Lower Canada. The distress occasioned by the financial panic of this year in the United States had spread to Canada. It found vent in agitation against En- glish rule on the part of the French Canadians. On the o casion of the announcement of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne, when Te Deums were sung in the chow hes, the French Canadians signified their disapproval by walking out of church. Louis Joseph Papineau, Speaksr of the Lower House, led the opposition to the government proposals regarding the appl ation of the revenues of the provinee The home Goverment kept up a narrow "British party' devoted to the so-alled interests of the mother country. The majority in the Logilative Council constantly thwarted the resolutions of the vast majority of the popular Assembly. In Upper Canada a British and official class practically held within its control the government of the province. This class became known as the "family compact" The publio offices and lands were parceled out among themselves and their followers. The Representative Assembly declined to pay the salaries of these officials, and demanded that the Legislative Council, instead of being nominees of the Crown, should be made, elective. When intelligencs of these acts reached England Lord Johr Russell carries in the English House of Coemmons a series of resolutions rejecting the demand for an elective 572 187 QUEEN VICTORIA TAKING THE OATH This page in the original text is blank. REBELLION OF PAPINEAU AND MACKENZIE 1837 legislative council and other changes in the Constitution, and empowering the executive government to defray the expenses of public service out of territorial and casual revenues. On November 6 the so-called "Sons of Liberty" rose in Montreal under the leadership of Papineau. Il Upper Canada a similar rising was headed by William Lyon Mac- kenzie, a journalist. On December 4 an attempt was made to surprise Montreal. With the help of the militia the in- surgents were defeated, on December 4, at St. Eustace. The leaders of the insurrection at Toronto fled to the United States and persuaded Van Rensselaer with other citizens of Buffalo-to join them. On December 12 they seized Navy Island in Niagara River, established a provisional govern- ment, and issued paper money. Loyalist8 of Canada at- tempted in vain to capture the place. On December 29 they attacked the steamer "Carolina" and sent her over the Falls, resulting in the loss of several lives. This incident caused great excitement, both in England and this country. Presi- dent Van Buren issued a proclamation of neutrality forbid- ding all interference in Canada, and sent General Wool with a military force to compel obedience to the proclamation. In Upper Canada Major Head-afterward Sir Francis Head- undertook to suppress the rebellion by throwing the Cana- dians on their honor. Trusting to the good-will of the peo- ple, he sent all the regular soldiers out of the province to the assistance of Governor Gosford in Lower Canada. The plan worked well. The Canadians, proud of the confidence re- posed in them, enrolled themselves in the militia to the num- ber of ten or twelve thousand, and when Mackenzie and the rebels assembled to show fight, they were routed at the first encounter, and the rebellion in Upper Canada was at once suppressed. But Major Head's policy was not approved by the British Government, and he had to make way for Lord Durham, the newly appointed Governor of Canada. XlXth Century-Vol. 11-7 573 EVENTS OF 1838 Canadian Rebels at Navy Island Surrender-Mackenzie Proclaims a Re- public-Lord Durham Hangs and Banishes Rebels-Rebels Defeated Near Toronto and at Napierville and Prescott-Parliament Disal- lows Durham's Harsh Reprisals-He Returns Broken-Hearted to England-His Successor Colbourne Soon Throws Up the Job- Hudson Bay Fiur Company Rules the Northwest-Radicals in Par- liament Draw Up the "People's Charter" of Six Democratic Meas- ures-The "Chartists" Divide on Question of Employment of Force to Win Their Ends-France Demands Reparation from Mexico for Injuries to Frenchmen in Recent Revolution-French Bombard San Juan de Ulloa and Vera Cruz-Argentina Becomes Involved in the War-French Blockade Buenos Ayres-Louis Napoleon, Returns from America to Switzerland and Writes a Self-Advertising Book- He is Expelled from Switzerland-Notable French Books and Paint- ings-Works of Poe, Hawthorne. and Emerson-Murder of Lovejoy, the Abolitionist-Cruel Deportation of Cherokees from Georgia- Missouri Expels Mormons-Record Trip of Steamship "Great West- ern"-Seizure of Osceola-H-e Dies in Captivity-Taylor Defeats Seminoles at Lake Okeechobee. ARLY in the rear the Canadian insurgents and their sympathizers at Navv Island were compelled to sur- render. ITnited States troops were posted at the frontier. In the meanwhile Lord Durham had taken charge in Canada with dictatorial powers. He undertook to re- model the Constitution of Canada. His first act was a proclamation of amnestv from the Queen. The beneficent effect of this was spoiled by a clause of exceptions providing for the perpetual banishment of a number of men implicated in the recent rising. On April 2 Lunt and Matthews, two conspicuous rebels, were hanged. Lord Durham's confession that his measures were illegal evoked a storm in Parliament. Lord Brougham, who had a personal quarrel with him, led the opposition there. In Canada Mackenzie promptly pro- claimed a republic. On June 5 a fight between the rebels and British troops near Toronto quelled the rebellion for a short time. Within a few months it broke out again at Beau- harnais. A pitched battle was fought at Napierville early 57 4 VOTING BY BALLOT in November. After their defeat there the rebels made another stand at Prescott on November 17, but suffered so crushing a defeat that the insurrection was believed to have been ended. In the meanwhile Lord Brougham had suc- ceeded in passing a bill through the House disapproving Lord Durham's measures. Durham, he said, had been au- thorized to make a general law, but not to hang men without the form of law. To save his own Administration Lord Melbourne on the next day announced that the Cabinet had decided to disallow Durham's expatriation ordinances. Dur- ham was called upon to proclaim to the rebellious colonists that the ordinance issued by him had been condemned by his own Government. Venting his mortification in a last in- dignant proclamation, he quitted Canada without waiting for his recall. By the express orders of the Government the honors usually paid to a Governor-General were withheld from him. Lord Durham returned to England a broken- hearted and dying man. He was succeeded by Sir John Col- bourne. His first measure was to offer a reward of pound;1,000 for the apprehension of Papineau. The storm of indignation that followed was so violent that Colbourne incontinently threw up his post and hastened back to England. The Hudson Bay Fur Company improved the interregnum to monopolize the functions of government in the vast regions of the extreme north of America. An expedition was sent out to explore the northernmost coast. The United States also fitted out an Antarctic exploring expedition, consisting of six vessels, under the command of Lieutenant Wilkes. In the British Parliament the question of voting by. ballot in electing members of Parliament was raised by IDuncombe, but Lord John Russell spoke against it, stat- ing that the majority of the people were against fresh changes, or any renewal of the agitating circumstances which preceded the Reform Bill. But twenty members voted with 575 1833 "THE PEOPLE'S CHARTER" Duncombe, of whom six were asked to meet six members of the Workingmnen's Association to discuss a program of action. At that meeting a document in the shape of a Par- liamentary petition was prepared containing "six points," which were: Universal suffrage, or the right of voting by every male of txwenty-one years of age; vote by ballot; annual Parliaments; abolition of the property qualification for mem- bers of Parliament; members of Parliament to be paid for their services; equal electoral districts. At the conclusion of the meeting Daniel O'Connell rose and handed the petition to the secretary of the Workingmen's Association, saying: "There, Lovett, is your Charter. Agitate for it and never be content with anything else." The "People's Charter" was submitted to a large public meeting and enthusiastically approved, and the leaders of the movement began to organize. They soon fell into two factions; those who were in favor of force and those in favor of agitation only. The leader of both parties was Feargus O'Connor, an Irish barrister, and once a follower of O'Con- nell, with whom he subsequently quarreled. In France the sympathies of the people with the cause of the French Canadians were kept under firm control by the government of Louis Philippe. A dissolution of the Cham- bers, which modified the condition of the Assembly, served to strengthen the Ministry of Mole. To vent the feelings ex- cited in behalf of the Frenchmen of Canada, the French Government picked a quarrel with the Republic of Mexico. Reparation was demanded late in March for injuries in- flicted on French residents during the internal dissensions of Mexico. The demand was refused. A French squadron of warships, under Admiral Baudin and Prince de Joinville, was sent out to blockade the coast of Mexico. On Novem- ber 27 San Juan de Ulloa was bombarded. Vera Cruz like- wise suffered bombardment. The Argentine Republic became 576 1838 MURDER OF LOVEJOY involved and declared war on France. French cruisers blockaded Buenos Ayres. On the occasion of his mother's death Prince Louis Napoleon returned to Europe. His book, "Id6es Napoleon- iennes," ywhich was widely read througlout France, at once drew attention upon him. At the request of the French Government he was expelled from Switzerland. Louis Phi- lippe's friend, Alexandre Dumas, at this time achieved a popular success with his book "Captain Paul."' Dumas's romantic plays and several of his latest comedies, written in the style of Scribe, were at the height of their vogue. In the French salon of this year Frangois Daubigny, the great pupil of T)elaroche, first exhibited his early mas- terpieces, "Banks of the River Oulins" and "The Seine at Charenton." Both paintings were purchased by the French Government. In America a new writer had arisen in Edgar Allan Poe, whose "Narrative of A. Gordon Pym" was published this year. Nathaniel Hawthorne during this same year wrote his early stories, which were afterward collected under the title of "Twice Told Tales." Ralph Waldo Emer- son at Concord, Massachusetts, had begun to deliver those penetrating lectures which, rewritten in the form of essayst later established his rank as the foremost philosophic writer in America. Wendell Phillips made his appearance as a lecturer against slavery in Boston. Shortly before this a pro-slavery mob at Alton, Illinois, murdered the Rev. E. P. Lovejoy and destroyed the press and building of his news- paper, published in the interests of abolition. Abraham Lin- coln, who had been reelected to the Legislature of Illinois, voiced a strong protest against this and other pro-slavery tendencies in Illinois. Other acts of persecution during this year brought last- ing disgrace upon America. In direct violation of the Fed- 577 Ians MISSOURI EXPELS MORMONS eral treaties with the Indians the State troops of Georgia forcibly removed 16,000 Cherokees from their lands in that State. It was mid-winter, and 4,500 Indians perished on the way to the distant Indian Territory. The members of the new sect of Miormnon were expelled from Missouri. Thev founded Nauvoo in Illinois. Chicago was incorporated with a population of 4,170 residents. Much comment was excited by a record trip of the steamboat "Great Western," which steamed from Bris- tol, England, to New York in fifteen days. Among those who lived to witness this event was John Stevens, one of the pioneers of modern steamboat building. Shortly afterward he died in his eighty-ninth year. Within a short time after suing for peace, the Southern Indians broke the truce and made a determined effort to take Fort Mellon. In this they were unsuccessful. In March, at Fort Dade, five of the chiefs signed an agreement, in which they stipulated to cease from war until the Government decided whether they might remain in Florida. Some 700 Indians and negroes were taken by the Government before its decision was announced, and were sent off to Tampa for shipment. In violation of a flag of truce, Osceola and several of his principal chiefs were seized and sent to Fort Moultrie as prisoners. Their treatment there was such that Osceola soon died. In May Colonel Zachary Taylor succeeded Jesup. The remaining forces of the Indians were now wary. They scattered in the swamps, eluding attempts of organized troops to capture them. In December Colonel Taylor set out with over 1,000 men for their almost in- accessibl3 haunts. On Christmas Day they found the Semi- noles prepared to receive them near Okeechobee Lake. After a hard-fought battle, in which Taylor lost 139 men, the Indians once more retreated into the swamps of Florida. 578 1838 EVENTS OF 1839 Mexico Pays Indemnity to France-France and Austria Withdraw Forces from Papal States-Holland Agrees to Belgium's Annexation of Luxemburg-Marshal Soult Becomes French Premier-Daguerre Invents Photography-Ibrahim Defeats Turks at Nissiv-Defection of Turkish Admiral with Fleet to Egyptians-Mehemet Ali Moves on Constantinople-British and French Fleet Occupy Dardanelles, Ostensibly to Stop Egyptians, but Really to Break Russia's Monop- oly of Black Sea-Melbourne's Ministry Falls-Queen's Desire to Retain Connections of Former Ministers Among Her Ladies of the Bedchamber Causes Peel to Refuse to Organize New Ministry- Chartist Agitation Grows-By Order of Chinese Emperor Much Opium is Destroyed-British Frigates Sink Four Chinese Junks in Sea-Fight-Imperial Edict Prohibits Trade with Great Britain- The Usurping Khan of Afghanistan Plots with Russia-British Take Kandahar and Restore Shah Shuja-Minor Events Throughout Brit- ish Empire-Rowland Hill Introduces Penny Postage-Various Scientific Discoveries and Achievements-Death of Smith, "Father of Geology"-Espartero Disperses the Carlists-American Whigs Nominate Harrison for President-American Inventions-Victoria Announces Her Engagement to Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha- Soldiers Fire into Mob Attempting Jail Delivery of Chartist Leader. U UPON the fall of Vera Cruz President Bustamente called in a new Ministry, with which, through the mediation of.England, negotiations for peace with France were undertaken. On March 9 the terms of peace were concluded. Mexico had to pay an indemnity of 600,- 000. Further use for the French squadron in American waters was found in the complicated affairs of the small South American republics at the mouth of the Plata, and the alleged injuries suffered by Frenchmen from the disordered state of affairs in Haiti. On the other hand, France with- drew its troops from the citadel of Ancona in the Papal dominions, simultaneously with the withdrawal of the Aus- trian forces of occupation from the Papal States. The long- pending difficulties between Belgium and Holland wvere brought to a settlement at last by the King of Holland's acceptance of the conditions of separation fixed by the inter- national conference. The abandonment of Casimir P6rier's 579 TURKISH-EGYPTIAN WAR vigorous foreign policy in Europe was viewed with regret by the Liberal party in France. Guizot combined with Thiers and Odilon Barrot against the Ministry, and thus accomplished its downfall, though they retained Marshal Soult, the most popular member of Mole's Cabinet. "I must have that gallant sword," remarked Louis Philippe. Their efforts to conduct the Government proved a failure. The King established a provisional government in their place, which prolonged the crisis. On May 12 an insurrection broke out in the most populous quarters of Paris. Under the leadership of Barbes Bernard and others, attacks were made on the Hotel de VTille, the Palace of Justice, and the Pr6fecture of Police. The revolt had to be put down by merciless measures. Marshal Soult was placed at the head of the Government to the exclusion of Guizot and Odilon Barrot, while Thiers was made President of the Chambers. Guizot employed his leisure time to write his famous "Life of Washington." About the same time Daguerre published his new invention of making the sun prints which were called daguerreotypes after him. A life pension of 6,000 francs was awarded to him by the Government of Louis Philippe. The first problem confronting the new ad- ministration of France was the fresh trouble that had broken out in the Orient. The long-brewing war between Sultan Mahmoud of Tur- key and his vassal, Mehemet Ali of Egypt, broke out in May. In the face of new assurances of peace, the Sultan ordered his commander-in-chief of the Euphrates to com- mence hostilities. The Turkish troops crossed the Euphrates on May 28. In spite of the good counsels of Moltke and other European officers at the Turkish headquarters, the Turks were outmanceuvred by the Egyptian forces under Ibrahim. June 24 Ibrahim Pasha inflicted a crushing de- feat on the Turkish army at Nissiv. All the artillery and 580 1839 FRANCE AND ENGLAND INTERVENE 1 stores fell into his hands. The Turkish army dispersed in another rout. Mahmoud II did not live to hear of the dis- aster. One week after the battle of Nissiv, before news from the front bad reached him, lie died. The throne was left to his son, Abdul Mfedjid, a youth of sixteen. Scarcely had the new Sultan been proclaimed when the Turkish admiral, Aebmet Fevzi, who bad been sent out to attack the coast of Syria, sailed into Alexandria and deliv- ered his fleet over to Miehemet Ali. Turkey, now practically rulerless, was left without defence, on land and on wvater. Mehemet Ali not only declared Egypt independent of the Porte, but, encouraged by France, prepared to move on Con- stantinople. In this extremity the foreign Ambassadors at Constantinople addressed a collective note to the Divan [Gov- ernment Council], announcing European intervention. Shortly afterward a squadron of British and French war- ships sailed into the Dardanelles for the ostensible purpose of protecting Constantinople against Mehemet Ali, in reality to prevent Russia from profiting by the terms of its treaty of Unkiar Skelessi. In vain did Russia propose to join the coalition. The recent acquisition of Aden gave England the upper hand. Russian diplomacy accordingly directed itself toward effecting a breach between the allies. A good open- ing was afforded by the French intrigues at Cairo, which fell in with the ambitions of Mehemet Ali. As a result, France was gradually crowded out of the European coalition during the course of 1839. England during this period passed through a Cabinet crisis. The popularity of Melbourne's Ministry was waning. Lord Melbourne was a typical Whig, opposed to the policy of the Tories, or, as they were beginning to be called at that time, the Conservatives. In Mlay the Government's proposition to suspend the Constitution of Jamaica brought about the fall of the 11ii- 581 1839 OPIUM WAR WITH CHINA istry. The measure was sustained by a majority of only five. The Queen sent for Sir Robert Peel. Her wish to retain as ladies of her household the wife and sister of two mem- bers of the last Cabinet brought forth a respectful remon- strance from Peel. The Queen replied in this wise: "The Queen having considered the proposal made to her yesterday by Sir Robert Peel, to remove the Ladies of her Bedchamber, can not consent to a course which she considers to be con- trary to usage, and is repugnant to her feelings." This ended Peel's attempt to form a Ministry and Mel- bourne was recalled. The question created much discussion at the time. Lord Brougham maintained that Lord Mel- bourne "had sacrificed liberal principles and the interests of the country to the private feelings of the sovereign." In the end the Queen yielded. On behalf of the Chartists large public meetings were organized in London and in all parts of England, at which violent speeches were made. In May the Chartist National Convention removed from London to Birmingham. There they were met by a mob of 5,000 persons and conducted through the principal streets to the meeting-place. Meanwhile Great Britain was embroiled in another Oriental war. In January Emperor Taouk-Wang ordered the Viceroy of Houk Wang to proceed to Canton to put a definite stop to the opium traffic. The peremptory instruc- tions given to Commissioner Lin were "to cut off the foun- tain of evil, and if necessary to sink the British ships and to break their caldrons, since the hourly thought on the Em- peror's part -was to do away with opium forever." On Lin's arrival at Canton he issued an edict commanding the surren- der of all stores of opium within three days. To enforce this demand, Chinese troops were concentrated around the European settlement. Eventually more than 20,000 chests of opium were seized and dumped into the sea. The British 582 1839 WAR WITH AFGHANS merchants of Canton sent a memorial to England begging the Government to protect them against "a capricious and cor- rupt Government" and demanding compensation for the opium confiscated by the Chinese. Captain Elliot at Can- ton, on :May 22, issued a notice in which he protested against the action of the Chinese Government "as utterly unjust per se," and advised all British merchants to withdraw to Hong Kong. The merchants acted on the suggestion, and the English factory at Canton, which had existed for nearly 200 years, was abandoned. In a collision between British sailors and natives a Chinaman was killed. The Chinese viceroy demanded the surrender of the murderer. This de- mand was flatly refused. The Chinese thereupon refused to furnish further supplies to the ships and prohibited all Brit- ish sailors from coming ashore on Chinese soil, on pain of assault and capture. The English naval officers retaliated by sending out their men to seize by force whatever they needed. A boat's crew of the British ship "Black Jack" was massacred. Thus hostilities began. Two British men-of-war exchanged shots with the forts in the Bogue. On November 3 the two frigates "Volage" and "Hyacinth" were attacked by twenty-nine junks-of-war off Chuenpee. A regular en- gagement was fought and four of the junks were sunk. On December 6 an imperial edict prohibiting all trade with Great Britain was issued. Already a strong British squad- ron was on its away to China. Simultaneously with these troubles the British had become embroiled in war with the Afghans. The ostensible purpose was to depose Dost Mohammed Khan from his usur- pation of the throne of Afghanistan, and to restore Shah Shuja. In reality Dost Mohammed had aroused the ire of England by entering into negotiations with Russia. War was declared at Simla. Columns were sent out from Bomubav and Bengal and were united at Quetta under the command of 583 1 839 TROUBLES IN BRITISH COLONIES Sir John Keene. Kandahar was captured in April. In July Ghasni was taken by storm. It was on this occasion that Sir Henry Durand, then a young subaltern, distin- guished himself by blowing up the Ghasni gate. In August the British entered Kabul. Dost Mohammed Khan fled over the Oxus into Bolihara. Shah Shuja was restored as ruler of Afghanistan under the tutelage of a British resident min- ister. In response to Dost Mohammed's appeals, the Rus- sian Government sent out an expedition toward Khiva in November; but the winter weather in the mountains was so severe that the expedition had to return. Other problems engaged the attention of the British Colonial Office. A rebellion in Borneo had to be suppressed by force of arms. In Canada the new Governor-General, Charles Pollot Thompson, later Lord Sydenham, found it difficult to carry out Durham's scheme of union. In Novem- ber martial law had to be declared again at Montreal. The reported discovery of gold by Count Strzelescki in New South Wales, and the discovery of copper in South Austra- lia drew great numbers of emigrants thither. New Zealand 'was incorporated in New South Wales. The wild financial speculations engendered by these changes plunged almost all of Australia into bankruptcy. In Cape Colony the public school system was introduced by Sir W. Herschel. In England it was a period of material advances in civ- ilization. Postal reforms were introduced by Sir Rowland Hill. In July a bill for penny postage was introduced in Parliament, resulting in a new postage law providing a uni- form rate of fourpence per letter. New speed records were made on land and on water. While the steam packet "Bri- tannia" crossed from Halifax to Liverpool in ten days, the locomotive "North Star" accomplished a run of thirty-seven miles in one hour. Wheatstone perfected his invention of a telegraph clock. A patent was obtained for the process of 584 1839 PROGRESS OF SCIENCE obtaining water gas. Charles Darwin, having returned from his scientific travels on H.M.S. "Beagle," published his "Journal of Researches." A loss to German philosophic literature was the death of Joseph Schelling, whose theories formed the main inspira- tion of the romantic poet :Novalis. Agassiz, the naturalist, published his original researches on fresh-water fishes. It was then that Dr. Theodore Schwann, stimulated in his microscopic researches by the previous discoveries of Robert Brown, Johannes MI iiller, and Schleiden, propounded the famous cell theory in his work, "Microscopic Researches Concerning the Unity in the Structure and Growth of Ani- mals and Plants." The cell theory was for some time com- bated bv the most eminent German men of science. Thus ILiebig, in apparent agreement with Helmholtz, took a firm stand against the new doctrine with his famous "theory of fermentation" promulgated this same year. It was Schwann, too, who, simultaneously with Cagniard la Tour, discovered the active principle of gastric juice to be the substance which he named pepsin. In England William Smith, "the father of geology," died. ie discovered that any given stratum of rock is labeled by its fossil population; that the order of succession of such groups of fossils is always the same in any vertical series of strata in which they occur, and that a fossil, having once disappeared, never reappears in a later stratum. The facts which he unearthed were as iconoclastic in their field as the discoveries of Copernicus and Galileo. In Spain General Espartero forced back the Carlist forces step by step, and carried the fight into the Basque provinces. By the middle of September so many of the in- surgents had surrendered to Espartero that Don Carlos found himself almost without followers. He gave up the struggle and fled into France. This ended the civil war. It had 585 1839 FAILURE OF UNITED STATES BAK lasted six weary years, and had proved almost as disastrous for Spain as the great Peninsular War. Robbed of her for- mer colonial resources, excepting only those from Cuba and the Philippines, Spain's finances were all but ruined. Of industrial progress there was next to none. The country relapsed into semi-barbarism. In the United States prominent Northern abolitionists met at Warsaw, New York, and resolved to form an inde- pendent political party. A Whig Convention, the first of such gatherings, was held at Harrisburg, fifteen months be- fore the next Presidential election. Harrison was nominated for President and John Tvler for Vice-President. The first session of the Twenty-sixth Congress opened in December. An organization of the House was at last effected by John Quincy Adams, who put a question to vote which the Speaker had refused to present. The Representatives in- dulged for the first time in the practice of "pairing off." Adams opposed this, declaring that it was a violation of the Constitution, of an express rule of the House which the Representatives 9wed to their constituents. Another event of the year in America was the failure of the United States Bank at Philadelphia, in consequence of speculations in cot- ton, as the result of which the Government lost 2,000,000 of its deposits. Other bank failures followed. Mississippi repudiated 5,000,000 of its State bonds. The first power loom for making carpets was set up at Lowell, Mlassachu- setts. Charles Goodvear obtained his first patent for making vulcanized rubber. The express business was organized by Harndon, who sent his first pack from New York to Boston by the public messenger. Longfellow published his romance "Hiyperion" and "Voices of the Night," a collection of verses embracing some of his most widely known poems. In the same year appeared James Fenimore Cooper's "History of the Navy." 586 1839 VICTORIA ANNOUNCES HER COMING MARRIAGE 1839 Toward the close of the year Queen Victoria announced to the Privy Council her intention to marry her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Greville wrote in his diary that "about eighty Privy Councilors were present, the folding-doors were thrown open, and the Queen came in, at- tired in a plain morning gown, but wearing a necklace con- taining Prince Albert's portrait. She read the declaration in a clear, sonorous, sweet tone of voice, but her hand trembled so excessively that I wonder she was able to read the paper which she held." All this time the peaceful agitation for the People's Char- ter in England went on unabated. In the autumn St. Paul's Cathedral in London was temporarily taken possession of by a large body of Chartists. Churches were likewise entered in Manchester. A vast periodical literature sprang up to propagate radical ideas. Among the new Chartist newspapers were the "Northern Star," the property and the organ of Feargus O'Connor; the London "Despatch"; the Edinburgh "New Scotsman"; the Newcastle "Northern Liberator"; and the Birmingham "Journal." The advocates of force were also active. At Newport, in Monmouthshire, an organized attempt was made to rescue Henry Vincent, a Chartist agitator, from prison. Armed with guns, crowbars, and pickaxes, the mob poured into the town twenty thousand strong. They were met by a small body of soldiery, and after a sharp conflict were scattered with a loss of ten killed and fifty wounded. The leaders were arrested and condemned in court. 587 EVENTS OF 1840 Great Britain Sends Expedition to China-Boers Defeat and Kill Din- gaan-Upper and Lower Canada Unite-Democrats Nominate Van Buren for President-Harrison Elected after Exciting Campaign- Morse Patents Telegraph-Notable American Books-Various South American Revolutions-Hawaii Recognized as Independent Mon- archy on Condition of Admitting Missionaries-The Powers, Except France, Present Ultimatum to Viceroy of Egypt to Abandon Claim to Turkish Throne-Backed by France, He Refuses-France Makes Military Preparations against Germany-Deaths of Lucien Bona- parte and Marshal MacDonald-Louis Napoleon's Abortive Attempt to Win Over the French Army-Marriage of Victoria-Attempted Assassination of Royal Pair-Birth of Princess Augusta-Denial of the Monster Chartist Petition-Death of the Violinist Paganini -Death of Frederick William III-Accession of Frederick William IV-His Concessions to Catholic Clergy-British Parliament's Con- cessions to Catholics Cause "No Popery" Agitation-Lords Refuse to Remove Jewish Disabilities-British Fleet Blockades China- Expedition is Sent against Burma-Suspicious Deaths of Their Princes Bring Sikh Troops to Verge of Mutiny--Natives Take Kelat -Punitive Expedition Retakes It-British Envoy, Incensed at Rus- sian Plots, Abandons Herat-British Troops Assist Sultan of Borneo in Suppressing Rebels-Allies Drive Ibrahim Back from Syria- Mehemet Ali Makes Peace on Favorable Terms-Soult Becomes French Premier-Guizot Made Foreign Secretary-Russia Resigns Monopoly of Bosphorus, from which by Agreement of Powers All Foreign Warships are to be Excluded-Napoleon's Remains are Brought in State to Paris-Great Flood in Southern France and Earthquake in Greece Queen Regent of Spain Abdicates Because of Loss of Power Owing to Her Loose Morals-Espartero Made Regent-His Expulsion of Meddling Papal Nuncio Arouses Animos- ity of Clericals-Overbeck, the Painter, Produces His Masterpiece. HE Chinese edict prohibiting all trade and inter- course with England was put in force on Jan- uary a. The English missionaries in China fled to Hong Kong, which port was put in readiness for defence against the Chinese. Great Britain declared war, and sent out an expedition consisting of 4,000 troops on board 25 transports, with a convoy of 15 men-of-war. In South Africa, during January, the Boers inflicted a crushing defeat on the Zulus under Dingaan. The Zulu King himself was killed. His brother, Upanda, succeeded him as ruler. 588 THE LOG CABIN CAMPAIGN On the other side of the globe the legislative union of Upper and Lower Canada was at last effected, after a separa- tion of forty-nine years. Each had equal representation in the common legislature, with practical concession on the part of the mother country of responsible government. Kingston was selected as the new seat of government, to be shifted presently to Montreal. To settle the long-pending boundary dispute between Canada and the United States, a commission was appointed, consisting of Lord Ashburton for England and Daniel Webster for America. Between the line claimed by Great Britain and that demanded by the United States lay 12,000 square miles of territory. The commission sat all the year. The American Senate early in the year passed the Sub- Treasury bill. By this measure it was required that the national funds should be kept at Washington, and in fed- eral sub-treasuries in some of the large cities, subject to the orders of the Washington office. The first National Conven- tion against slavery met at Albany. James G. Birney, a Kentuckian, was nominated for President. The Whigs were incensed at the nomination and Birney withdrew. The Democratic National Convention at Baltimore unanimously renominated Van Buren. The political campaign that fol- lowed began a new era in American elections. The facilities of transit effected by the railroads now first rendered possible immense gatherings at central points. In May 20,000 politi- cal followers gathered at Baltimore in Harrison's interest. The contest had just opened, when a leading Democratic paper stated: "If some one would present Harrison with a barrel of cider he would sit down on a log content and happy the rest of his days." The log cabin and hard cider jug forthwith became the emblems of the Whigs. Log cabin songs were heard, with shouts for "Tippecanoe, and Tyler too." All the Middle States gave their majorities to Harri- 589 1840 SPANISH-AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS son. Harrison and Tyler were elected by a vote of 1,2 75,017 to 1,128,702 for Van Buren. It was a political revolution, breaking the Democratic success of forty years. It was dur- ing this year that Samuel F. B. Morse obtained his first American patent on the telegraph. Ralph Waldo Emerson published "The Dial." Other notable publications in Amer- ican letters were Poe's "Tales of the Grotesque and Ara- besque," Willis's "Loiterings of Travel," Cooper's "Path- finder," and Dana's "Two Years Before the Mast." In Central and South America it was likewise a year of political upheavals. The Yankee settlers of Texas main- tained their independence against Mexico. Their movement was joined by the Northern States along the Rio Grande. The independent State of Newe Mexico was formed. Yuca- tan likewise became an independent Government. On July 25 a revolution broke out in the City of Mexico. General Urrea captured in person President Bustamente. After two days Bustamente was released on a pledge of general am- nesty and administrative reforms. Santander, the first Pres- ident of Colombia, died in May. The election of Marquez to the Presidency was followed by civil war. The province of Cartagena seceded from Colombia. The union of Central American States was dissolved, and Costa Rica became an independent republic. In Brazil another political overturn resulted in material changes in the Constitution. In July the Brazilian Legislature declared Dom Pedro II, then still under age, Emperor of Brazil. In Argentina General La- valle, who had taken the field against his opponents, was utterly defeated and shot. A new treaty was concluded between Argentina and Montevideo. In the distant South Seas the Hawaiian Islands were recognized as an independent kingdom by the Powers on the condition that free access be permitted to Christian missionaries. 590 1840 TREATY OF LONDON IN RE TURKEY In regard to affairs of the Orient the Powers found agreement more difficult. France gave continued support to the pretensions of Mehemet Ali of Egypt against Turkey. The French scheme to anticipate Russia's designs on Con- stantinople by a dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of Mehemet Ali at Constantinople found little favor with the Powers. The Russian statesmen under- stood the true weakness of Turkey, and were willing to bide their time. Metternich and Lord Palmerston clung to the belief that the Ottoman Empire could still be reconstructed. At last, on July 15, the negotiators of Great Britain, Rus- sia, Austria, and Prussia, without waiting for France, con- cluded a treaty at London. Egypt was offered to Mehemet Ali in perpetuity with southern Syria for his lifetime. If this offer were not accepted within ten days, Egypt alone was to be ceded; if, after twenty days, this alternative were not accepted, joint action was to be taken against -Mehemet Ali. The Viceroy did not accept the offer. The exclusion of France from the concert of Europe aroused a storm of anger at Paris. Guizot, the French Am- bassador at London, expostulated with Lord Palmerston. Thiers, then at the head of affairs in France, issued orders for an increase of the strength of army and navy. The long- delayed fortifications at Paris were begun. Military spirit was so awakened in France that the familiar cry was raised to avenge Waterloo and recover the Rhine. Under the stress of this new military ardor in France, agitation was revived for the return of Napoleon Bonaparte's remains from St. Helena to France. The consent of the British Government having been obtained, a decree to this effect was passed by the French Chambers. Other events helped to fan to fresh life the smoldering flames of Napo- leonic imperialism. Thus the death of Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's eldest brother, and of Marshal MacDonald, hero 591 1840 VICTORIA WEDS PRINCE ALBERT of Wagram, recalled a host of Napoleonic memories. On August 6 Prince Louis Napoleon deemed the time ripe for another Napoleonic rising. Crossing over from England with a pet eagle, General Moltenon and fifty followers, he attempted to incite an insurrection at Vimereux near Bou- logne. He hoped to reenact the events after Elba. Once more his plans ended in a fiasco. The Viimereux garrison did not rise. Its officer, Colonel Puygelier, said: "Bona- parte or not, I see in you only a conspirator." Louis Napo- leon was taken and sentenced to life imprisonment within the fortress of Ham. As a sop to popuilar feeling, King Louis Philippe permitted the bronze statue of the Great Napoleon to be replaced on the column of the Grande Arm6e in Paris. In England great popular rejoicings had been occasioned by the marriage of Queen Victoria to Prince Albert of Saxe- Coburg on February 10. A bill was passed appointing the Prince Consort Regent of England in case of the Queen's death. The royal couple were well matched. The credit of having brought about this marriage was chiefly due to Lord Melbourne. The tactful conduct of Prince Albert after the marriage fully justified his choice. On June 10 an insane pot-boy named Oxford attempted to assassinate the Queen and the Prince Consort with a pistol. The would-be assassin was confined in an asylum. On November 21 Queen Vic- toria gave birth to her eldest child, Augusta, who subse- quently became Empress of Germany. Other English events of domestic importance were the passage of the vaccination act, the introduction of screw propellers in the British navy, and the State trial of the three leaders of the Chartist movement of the previous year. A monster petition subscribed by 1,280,000 signatures on a great cylinder was rolled into Parliament. In it were em- bodied new demands for a bill of rights, or the "People's 592 18M DEATH OF PAGANNINI Charter," comprising universal suffrage, including that of woman, secret ballots, payment of Parliamentary represen- tatives, and the like. The denial of this petition provoked a popular uprising under the leadership of Jack Frost at Newport, which had to be suppressed by the military. After a sensational trial, the leaders were condemned to deportation. The career of a striking figure of the nineteenth century was ended by the death of Paganini, .the most wonderful violinist the world had yet heard. He amassed a colossal fortune by his playing. The celebrated twenty-four violin capricci, written early in Paganini's career, have been ren- dered familiar by their transcriptions to the pianoforte by Schumann and Liszt. Paganini died from the results of dissipation. He left his famous Guarnero fiddle to his birthplace, Genoa. In Germany King Frederick William III of Prussia died in his sixty-sixth year. He wvas succeeded by Frederick William IV. The pending dispute between the Prussian Government and the Vatican, arising out of to, refusal of the Rhenish priests to sanction marriages between Catholics and Protestants, found a temporary adjustment by the new King's concessions to the clergy. In England, too, church questions came to the fore dur- ing debates in Parliament over the proposed Government as- sistance to schools in which the Douay Bible, or Roman Catholic version of the Scriptures, was used. On account of these Parliamentary debates, and the attempted reform of Irish registration by which more Roman Catholic voters were to be admitted, a loud anti-Popery cry was raised by the English Tories. Once more the House of Peers rejected a bill for removing the political disabilities of the Jews, after its passage through the Commons by a handsome majority of 113 yeas. The attention of Englishmen at this time was diverted to questions of foreign policy. The British expedi- 593 1840 BRITISH PUNITIVE EXPEDITIONS tion against China had arrived at the mouth of the Canton River in June. A naval blockade was established in Chinese waters. The Chinese retaliated by offering a reward for every Englishman taken, and a prize of 20,000 for the destruction of a British man-of-war. Sir Gordon Bremer sent an expedition against the island of Chusan. The Chi- nese officials refused to surrender until after the city of Tinghai had been all but demolished by the English gains. Tinghai was made a British base of supplies, but proved a very unhealthy place. The Chinese capture of an English subject, Vincent Stanton, was followed by a British expedi- tion into the Canton River. The barrier forts, after a heavy, bombardment, were taken by storm. Stanton was released. The British fleet made demonstrations at Amoy, Ningpo, and in the Gulf of Pechili. Emperor Taouk-Wang sent for troops from the interior. Mandarin Lin, who had entered into negotiations with the British, was degraded and was suc- ceeded by Viceroy Keshen of Peiho. 1IEeshen received Lord Palmerston's formal demands upon China and forwarded them to Pekin. By dilatory tactics he succeeded in gaining a breathing space. In India the British occupation of Kabul continued. New trouble broke out in Burma, where the British Resi- dent was expelled from Ava. An expedition had to be sent against Burma. The successive deaths of Runjit Singh, his son, and his grandson led to a general belief that they had been murdered by the Prime Minister, Dhian Singh. All the chief Sirdars rose against Dhian. The Sikh army of Ehalsak, numbering 7,000 soldiers, became a menace for Hindustan. In July the British garrison of Kelat in Be- luchistan was overpowered by the natives. Lord Auckland bad to prepare another expedition to restore English pres- tige in that quarter. Kelat was retaken by the British in November. New complications arose at IHerat, which had 594 1840 COALITION SUBDUES MEHEMET ALI long been the bone of contention between Great Britain and Russia in Central Asia. British ascendency over Herat had been gained by large financial subsidies, which had been spent in frustrating the designs of the Persians and Russians in that quarter. Major d'Arcy Todd, the English envoy at Herat, incensed by King Kaamram's continued dealings with Russia, withheld the further payment of the British subsi- dies, unless British troops were admitted to Herat. The situation became so acute that Major Todd on his own authority threw uip his post and left Herat. Lord Auckland in exasperation dismissed his erstwhile ambassador from political employ. Todd found a soldier's death on the field of Ferozeshahar. The continued rebellion of the Sarawacks in Borneo gavc the British an opportunity for interference there. Sir James Brooke, at the head of a British expedition, helped the Sultan of Borneo in quelling the rising. The operations of the international coalition against Me- hemet Ali of Egypt had now begun. Though the Viceroy's soldiers were camped on Turkish soil without a foe before them, and France stood at his back, Mehemet Ali found him- self checkmated. While Russia undertook to keep Ibrahim's army out of Constantinople, all French support was neu- tralized by Germany's mobilization on the Rhine. A naval squadron, composed of British and Austrian warships, was free to land the Turkish forces in Syria. On October 10 Commodore Napier bombarded Beyrout. The Syrians were armed against their Egyptian oppressors. On November 3 the British and Austrian fleets captured Acre. Ibrahim, with the remains of his army, fell back toward the Egyptian frontier. When the British fleet arrived before Alexandria, Mehemet Ali made haste to come to terms. In contravention 3f the ultimatum of the Powers, he was allowed to retain his hereditary rule over Egypt upon relinquishing Syria, and the Turkish fleet, which had been betrayed into his hands. 595 1840 1840 NAPOLEON'S BODY BROUGHT TO FRANC The humiliating position forced upon France caused the downfall of the Ministry of Thiers. Marshal Soult was placed at the head of affairs. Guizot was recalled from his embassy at London to take the portfolio of Foreign Affairs. He succeeded in restoring France to her former place in the concert of Europe. The French Government joined with the other Powers in the restoration of the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire by which all foreign warships were ex- cluded from the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles. Russia thereby virtually conceded the abrogation of her treaty of Unkiar Skelessi. On the other hand, Sebastopol and the Russian arsenals of the Euxine were thus safeguarded against any maritime attack except by Turkey. The revival of the Napoleonic legend by such writers as Branger, Lamartine, and Victor Hugo, together with other influences which served to keep bright the glories of the Empire, bore their fruit in the return of Napoleon's remains to France. On October 15 his body had been removed from the simple tomb at St. Helena. On November 30 the ship bearing Napoleon's remains arrived at Cherbourg. A mil- lion francs were voted by the Chambers for the new sepulchre under the dome of the chapel of the H6tel des Invalides. On this occasion great publicity was given to Lord Palmerston's letter to Ambassador Granville: "The Government of her British Majesty hope that the promptness of their response to this French request will be considered in France as a proof of their desire to efface all traces of those national animosities which, during the life of the Emperor, armed against each other the French and English nations. The Government of her Majesty are confident that if such senti- ments still exist anywhere, they will be buried in the tomb in which the remains of Napoleon are to be laid." Napo- leon's reburial -was witnessed by a million persons, in- cluding a hundred and fifty thousand soldiers drawn up in 596 QUEEN-REGENT OF SPAIN ABDICATES line to do him honor. The ceremonies were attended by the royal family and all the dignitaries of France, except the immediate relatives of Napoleon. As it happened, every liv- ing Bonaparte was either in exile or in prison. Shortly before this, great havoc had been wrought in France by disastrous inundations of the Sa6ne and Rhone. In Greece a great earthquake laid the city of Zante in ruins. These catastrophes were made the object of special study in Germany and Switzerland, where Agassiz was delivering his epoch-making discourses on the glacial period. Toward the end of the year wretched Spain suffered an- other political upheaval. After the last abandonment of the cause of Don Carlos by General Cabrera, in July, the Queen- Regent found herself confronted by a strong democratic party both in the Cortes and the country. The scandals of her private life undermined her political authority. Bv an in- surrection at Barcelona she was forced to call in General Espartero, the chief of the Progressist party, as her Prime Minister. Rather than submit to his demands she abdicated the Regency in October and left Spain. Espartero, toward the close of the year, was acknowledged by the Cortes as Regent of Spain. His first measures turned a large part of the people against him. On December 29, as a result of the growing dissensions between the Government and the clergy, the Papal Nuncio was expelled from Madrid. Thereafter Espartero and the clerical party were at daggers' points. This year Friedrich Overbeck finished his masterpiece, the "Triumph of Religion and the Arts." This German artist, at the time when the classicism of David was at its height, had become his most strenuous opponent, and had brought about the regeneration of the German religious school of painting. He and several of his followers formed the Nazarites, whose fundamental principle was that art ex- isted only for the service of religion. XIXth Century-Vol. II-8 59 7 1840 EVENTS OF 1841 British Take Canton and Reoccupy Opium Factories-Chinese Em- peror Collects New Army-Canton Populace Sack Opium Ware- houses-British Sink Junks and Capture Forts-Chinese Pay Part of Heavy Indemnity-They Break Truce and Still Heavier Ransom is Extorted-British Take Amoy and Other Cities-Cobden Leads in Free Trade Agitation-Melbourne's Ministry is Defeated Because of Proposals to Readjust Sugar Bounties and Reduce Duties on Corn-Peel Becomes Premier-Industrial Distress in England and Ireland-Extension of Christian Missions-New Inventions and Publications-First Canadian Parliament-Inauguration and Death of President Harrison-Accession of Tyler-Webster-Ashburton Treaty Fixes Canadian Boundary-Congress Repeals Independent Treasury Act, Passes Sweeping Bankruptcy Law, and Takes Charge of Distribution of Public Land Revenue-Tyler Breaks with Whigs by Vetoing National Bank Measure-Worth Ends Seminole War- Notable Literary Events-Political Changes in Spanish-America -Revolution in Spain in Behalf of Ex-Regent Queen Christina- France Continues Algerian Conquests-Death of Lermontov-The "Young German" Movement Comes Under Ban of Bundesrath-As- sembly of General Estates at Berlin-King Quenches Their Hopes for Larger Constitutional Liberties-British are Shut Up in Jella- labad-Byrnes's Garrison Massacred in Kabul-MacNaghten is Assassinated by Akbar Khan. ARLY in the year, after the arrival of the British plenipotentiaries, orders were issued for an attack on the forts on the Bogue, the entrance to Canton River, China. On January 7 1,500 British troops were landed on the flank and rear of the forts at the island of Chuenpee. After a sharp cannonade by the fleets, the forts were carried by a storming party under Captain Herbert. Simultaneously the forts at the island of Taikok were destroyed by the fleet, and their Chinese garrison was routed by landing parties. Several Chinese junks were sunk during the engagement. In all the Chinese lost some 1,500 men in casualties; the British losses were small. After the capture of the Bogue forts, Viceroy Keshen came to terms. lie agreed to pay a large money indemnity and to cede Hong Kong absolutely. On January 29 Hong Kong was declared a British posses- sion, and was heavily garrisoned with the troops transferred 598 BRITISH TAKE CANTON from Chusan. The importance of the new acquisition was scarcely realized by Englishmen at the time. The suspension of hostilities proved but temporary. Keshen was degraded and banished. Emperor Taouk-Wang issued an edict that he was resolved "to destroy and wash the foreigners away, without remorse." Keshen's successor, Elang, repudiated the convention signed by his predecessor. On February 25 the British proceeded to attack the inner line of forts guarding the approaches to Canton. The for- midable lines of Anunghoy, with batteries of 200 guns, were carried in the first rush. In quick succession the other positions of the Chinese were taken, until, on -March 1, the English squadron drew up in Whampoa Reach, under the very wvalls of Canton. On the arrival of Sir Hugh Gough to take command of the British forces, a brief armis- tice was granted. After a few days hostilities were renewed by the capture of the outer line of defences. Under the threat of immediate military occupation, the Viceroy of Can- ton came to terms. On March 18 the British reoccupied their opium factories in Canton. Emperor Taouk-Wang's anti-foreign policy remained unshaken. He appointed a new commission of three mandarins to govern Canton, and col- lected an army of 50,000 men in that province. In May Captain Elliott was insulted in the streets of Canton. He sent for reenforcements from Sir Hugh Gough at Hong Kong. A notice was issued advising all Englishmen to leave Canton that day. On the following night the Chinese sacked the opium warehouses and fired upon the British ships lying at anchor. Fire rafts were let loose against the squadron, but drifted astray. The British promptly took the offensive. They sank 40 war junks, and dismantled the Chinese bat- teries. On May 24 Sir Hugh Gough arrived at Canton with all his forces. The fleet advanced up the Macao passage, and troops were landed under unusually difficult circumstance. 599 1841 4MANDARINS PAY INDEMNITY The Chinese failed to take advantage of this, preferring to await the British attack in a strong line of intrenchments north of the city. On May 25 two British columns of 2,000 men each, with 16 pieces of artillery and 52 rockets, ad- vanced to the attack across the sacred burial grounds. Three of the hill forts were carried with slight loss. At the fourth fort desperate resistance was encountered. After this fort had succumbed to a bayonet attack the Chinese rallied in an open camp one mile to the rear. Intrenchments were thrown up with remarkable rapidity. The British troops, led by the Royal Irish Fusiliers, streamed over the open ground and scattered the remaining forces of the Chinese, The bril- lianey of this exploit was dimmed by the slaughter of China- men while asking quarter. The British losses were 70 killed and wounded. A general attack on the city was ordered for the next day. A fierce hurricane and deluge of rain frus- trated this plan. During the day the Canton mandarins came to terms. They agreed to pay an indemnity of 6,000,- 000, and to -withdraw their troops sixty miles from the city. A few days after this, when 5,000,000 of the indemnity had already been paid, the Chinese broke the armistice by an attempt to surprise the British camp. Instead of driving the attack home, the Chinese soldiers, some 10,000 in num- ber, contented themselves with waving their banners and uttering yells of defiance. The British artillery opened on them, and a running fight ensued. In the midst of it a vio- lent thunderstorm burst over Canton. A detachment of Madras Sepovs lost its way, and was all but overwhelmed by the Chinese. Thev had to be extricated by a rescue party of marines, armed with the new percussion gun, which was proof against wet weather. Under threat of immediate bom- bardment, more ransom was exacted. In the end the city was spared, to remain, according to the English formula, "a record of British magnanimity and forbearance." 600 1841 "SUBMISSIVE PEOPLE" After this the opium trade reverted to its former footing. To bring the Chinese Emperor, himself, to terms, Sir Henry Pottinger, the new British plenipotentiary, sailed northward, and appeared before the seaport of Amoy, nominally at peace with England. The Viceroy of Amoy sent a flag of truce to demand what was wanted. He was called upon to surrender the town. This he refused to do. The British ships at once engaged the land batteries, and landing parties were sent around the rear. The Chinese gunners were driven from their pieces, but several of their officers committed suicide. The commandant of the chief fort drowned himself in the face of both armies. The capture of Amoy remained barren of useful results. The British fleet proceeded northward until scattered by a hurricane in the Channel of Formosa. Coming together off Ningpo, the fleet attacked Chusan for the second time. Spirited resistance was offered by the Chi- nese. In the defence of the capital city Tinghai, Keo, the Chinese general-in-chief, was killed. All his officers fell with him. Leaving a garrison at Chusan, the British at- tacked Chinhai on the mainland. Here the Chinese suffered their heaviest losses. After this victory the city of Ningpo was occupied without opposition. The inhabitants shut themselves up and wrote on their doors: "Submissive people." Nevertheless, Ningpo was put to ransom, under threats of immediate pillage. -More British troops and warships were arriving to carry the war to the bitter end, when news arrived of disastrous events in Afghanistan. Troops had to be di- verted in that direction, and a more definite settlement of the Chinese question was accordingly postponed. The attention of Englishmen at home was all but en- grossed by domestic topics. In Parliament the opposition found its strongest issue in the long demanded reform of the Corn Laws. Various circumstances, such as increase of population and bad harvests, contributed to bring this issue 601 1841 COBDEN'S FREE-TRADE AGITATION to the front. The retaliatory tariffs adopted by America, Russia, France, Sweden, and the German Zollverein had their serious effect on British trade. The resulting financial depression engendered discontent. It was at this time that Richard Cobden came into prominence with his free-trade views. Then began the great struggle over the Corn Laws which, until its settlement, remained the most important question of the day in England. Lord Melbourne's Ministry, by its attempt to adjust the sugar bounties, and incidentally the Corn Laws, dealt the first formidable blow against the great system of monopoly called protection. The Govern- ment's proposals on that subject were denounced as an en- couragement of the produce of the sugars of Cuba and other slave States at the expense of the British West Indies, where slavery had been abolished. As a result the anti-slavery Whigs joined with the Tories, under the leadership of Peel. The Government was defeated by a majority of thirty-six votes. In contravention of Parliamentary customs, Lord Melbourne's Ministry did not hand in their resignations, neither did they see fit to dissolve Parliament. When Par- liament met again Sir Robert Peel, amid tumultuous cheer- ing from his followers, moved a direct vote of want of con- fidence in the Government. By a majority of one the motion was carried. The dissolution of Parliament was announced on the morrow. The appeal to the country resulted in a strong gain of Conservatives. The moribund Ministry made another attempt to carry their measures before retiring from office. Sir Robert Peel, in his proposals for a sliding scale in the duties on corn, already showed some bias toward that free-trade policy to which he afterward became committed. On the first division on this question the Government was outvoted by a majority of sixty-four. Melbourne's resigna- tion was of course followed by the elevation of Peel to tho Prime Ministry. Lord Palmerston was replaced by the Earl 602 1841 DEATH OF PRESIDENT HARRISON of Aberdeen in the Foreign Office. Lord Lyndhurst was re- tained in the Chancellorship. The leadership of the Upper House w'as left to the Duke of Wellington, who joined the Cabinet without taking any office. Throughout the year industrial distress prevailed in Eng- land and Ireland, with the usual consequence of an increase in crime. The vigorous support of British trade in the Far East was followed by an extension of Christian missions. Thus missionary work was resumed in China, while Living- stone preached the Gospel to the Hottentots of South Africa. During this year adhesive postage stamps were first used in England. Wheatstone patented his alphabetic printing tele- graph, and telegraph wires were strung as far as Glasgow. Almost simultaneously with the death of Hook, the British humorist, the newr publication of "Punch, or the London Charivari," made its appearance. One of its earliest con- tributors was George Cruikshank, the caricaturist. In British North America the first Parliament of Can- ada was opened with great ceremony in June. In the United States General Harrison was inaugurated as Presi- dent. It rained on his inauguration day, and the aged Gen- eral suffered so from exposure that he contracted pneumonia. One month later he died. The clamor of office-seekers dur- ing his brief tenure contributed largely to his death. Con- gress, after some debate, passed a bill to appropriate one year's Presidential salary to General Harrison's widow. Vice-President Tyler became President. A Virginian by birth, he was committed to the Southern theory of State rights. In his first message he recognized the veto of the United States Bank measure as approved by the nation. This caused a decisive break with the holdover Cabinet. All the members resigned except Daniel Webster, who was re- tained to complete the Canadian boundary treaty with Eng- land. The line at length agreed upon gave to the United 603 1841 END OF SEMINOLE WAR States 7,000 square miles, and to Great Britain 5,000, with the navigation of the St. John's River. Lord Ashburton in a speech at New York declared that never again could war be possible between the two countries. Tyler's new Secretary of State was Upham. The first measure of the Whigs was the repeal of the independent Treasury act of the previous Congress. The next was the establishment of a general sys- tem of bankruptcy. It was more than a bankrupt law; it was practically an insolvent law for the abolition of debts at the will of the debtor. The bill passed both Houses. A third measure was for the distribution of the revenue arising from public lands. This was made imperative by the fact that various American States and municipalities owed 200,000,- 000 to European creditors. These became uneasy, and wished the Federal Government to assume their debts. The system was first favored in 1838, and again in 1839, and in 1840 became a national issue. Although Calhoun and Benton both opposed the measure as a squandering of the public patrimony, it passed by a party vote. A compromise tariff measure, advocated by Clay, pro- vided for an upward scale of duties, to reach their maximum during the following year. The bill was vetoed by the Presi- dent. Another important measure was that for the rechar- tering of the National Bank. It passed both Houses by a close vote, but Tyler vetoed it, to the consternation of the Whigs. On the second vote the necessary two-thirds major- ity was not obtained. Thus the second attempt to resuscitate the old United States Bank resulted in failure. After this the Whigs withdrew their support from the Administration they had put into office. War with the Seminoles continued unabated. In the spring General William J. Worth had been appointed to suc- ceed Armisted. During the summer Worth dispersed his troops into small parties, which ascended the rivers and pene- 604 1841 NOTABLE AMERICAN PUBLICATIONS trated the swamps to the islands to which the Indians had retired. Worth brought Chief Coacoochee to Tampa in irons. To secure peace, Worth bade him name five of his fellow chieftains, who were to return to the Indians and inform them that unless they should appear at Tampa within a given time and give themselves up, Coacoochee and his fellow pris- oners would forthwith be hanged. The Indians came within the appointed time. As one after another surrendered they, were sent west to Mississippi. The cost of the war from first to last had been 40,000,000, which was twice the sum paid for the Territories of Louisiana and Florida together. It was estimated that for each black slave brought back from Florida to his owners, three white men had lost their lives, and 80,000 had been expended. During this year in America the grain drill was pat- ented. Wilkes explored the coast of California. Graham's Magazine was published-one of the first American literary magazines of high pretensions. Among its earliest contribu- tors was Edgar Allan Poe. At the same time Longfellow published his ballads, Cooper his "Deerslayer," and Ralph Waldo Emerson brought out his philosophical lectures in essay form. In Mexico the Presidency of Bustamente was super- seded by that of General Santa Anna. The northern States of Mexico maintained their independent attitude. The State of Costa Rica attempted to withdraw from the ascendent in- fluence of Guatemala. About the same time the city of Cartago was destroyed by an earthquake. In Colombia Mlar- quez maintained himself as President against his opponents. The States of Panama and Veragua seceded from the Colom- bian Union, but the President prevailed upon them to return to the confederation. In South America an expedition from Peru invaded Bolivia and laid siege to La Paz, only to be driven back. Peru was now invaded by an army from Bo- '605 1841 DEATH OF LER-MONTOV livia, but General Bolnes, the newly elected President of Chile, interfered on behalf of Peru. In Spain General Espartero throughout this year con- tinued his precarious rule. In October Generals O'Donnel and Concha headed a rising at Pambulna in behalf of the former Queen-Regent Christina. The Queen's guard re- pelled an attack of Don Diego Leon on the palace. On Oc- tober 15 Don Diego was captured and shot. One week later O'Donnel fled to France. On the same day General Zur- bano gained possession of the citadel and port of Bilbao. He declared himself in favor of the Queen-Regent. On the other side of the Pyrenees the restoration of the French entente cordiale with England and the other Euro- pean Powers was manifested in the conclusion of the Inter- national Convention of Alexandria in July, and the quin- tuple treaty for suppression of the slave trade proposed -by the British Government. The French cry for the forcible recovery of the Rhine frontier died down and public funds rose accordingly. All desire for military conquests was sat- isfied for the moment by the exploits of French arms under General Bugeaud and the Duc d'Aumale in Algeria. For once the Arab chiefs of the desert were cowed into submis- sion. The effect of the Duc d'Aumale's triumphal return was spoiled somewhat by the attempt to assassinate him on Sep- tember 13. Under Guizot's guidance the French Chambers showed their appreciation of the flourishing state of litera- ture in France by their amendments to the copyright law, extending the provisions of copyright to a period of thirty years after an author's death. Michel Jurgevitch Lermontov, the Russian poet, died on July 27, as the result of a duel in the Caucasus. His ro- mance, "A Hero of Our Time," was the immediate cause of the duel. Following in the wake of Chateaubriand and Byron, Lermontov wrote epic poems in a pessimistic, cynical .606, a841 THE "YOUNG GERMAN" MOVEMENT strain, without attaining quite the bitterness of spirit of a Byron or Heine, nor the melancholy lyric beauty of a Lenau or Leopardi. Preeminent, on the other hand, are his poet- ical descriptions of the scenery and wild national traits of the Caucasus, which furnished the background for almost all of his poems. Under Czar Nicholas, Lermontov's works were forbidden in Russia. After having been banished to the Caucasus, for demanding revenge for Pushkin's death, the poet published his last brilliant epic, "Song of Czar Ivan Vasilyevitch," under a pseudonym. In Germany, too, letters and arts were flourishing. In Vienna Nikolaus Lenau (Baron Strehlenau) and his friend, Anastasius Gruen (Count Auersperg), were the leaders of a literary movement which found its counterpart in the so- called "Young German" movement of the north, where Fer- dinand Freiligrath, Laube, Gutzkow, and Emmanuel Geibel came under the ban of the German Bundesrath. The great political event of the year was the meeting of the first Gen- eral Estates, convoked at Berlin. The new King's hostile attitude toward their popular demands for constitutional rights and larger liberties soon destroyed the hopes of lib- eral Germans for a change of spirit in the government of Prussia. A more material advance in civilization was as- sured by the opening of the first railway from Berlin to Magdeburg. Peter von Cornelius, one of the leaders of the religious Catholic movement in art which had followed the classicism of the first decade of the century, was commissioned by the King to decorate the cemetery at Berlin. These decorations afterward, as well as the mural paintings in the Cliurch of Saint Louis at Munich, proved to be his masterpieces. The expenses of the British occupation of Afghanistan were so heavy that retrenchment was imperative. As soon as the British Resident cut down the subsidies paid to Shah 607 1841 BRITISH SHUT UP IN KABUL Shuja the situation took a sinister turn. In October Sir Robert Sale left Kabul with a brigade of British troops to reopen communications with Jellalabad, which had been in- terrupted by hostile mountain tribes. He got to Jellalabad only after a desperate struggle and heavy losses. His sub- sequent defence of that stronghold against the Afghans is one of the heroic traditions of British India. At Kabul, in the meanwhile, the garrison had been re- moved from the citadel of Bala Hasir to open cantonments outside of the city. Sir William MacNaghten, the British Resident, had been appointed Governor of Bombay, and was about to be succeeded by Sir Alexander Byrnes. Byrnes took up his abode in the centre of the city amid the turbulent bazaars. On November 2 the people of Kabul rose against the English. Byrnes barricaded his house and sent to Mac- Naghten for help. On the advice of General Elphinstone MacNaghten decided to wait for further information before acting. The delay was fatal for Byrnes. He held out with thirty-two others from eight in the morning until two in the afternoon. Then the ammunition gave out. The mob rushed in and tore the house to pieces. Byrnes and twenty- three of his followers were massacred. One hour later a British relief corps tried to enter the city. All Kabul turned against them. The British were forced to retire. The news of this set Afghanistan wild. Thousands of armed moun- taineers flocked to Kabul, and the whole nation rose against the foreigners. The British troops were cut off from all sup- plies. They maintained their precarious position only by lavish promises of ransom. At length, after many parleys, a meeting was arranged for December 23 between Mac- .Naghten and the Afghan chiefs. When the English envoy walked into the meeting the Afghans fell upon him, and he was slain by Akbar Khan. 608 1841 EVENTS OF 1842 British Troops, Retreating from Kabul, are Annihilated-Ameer of Bok- hara Beheads British Envoys-Pollock's Sepoys Relieve Sale at Jellalabad-Nott Takes Kabul-British Vandalism-British Annex Natal-Expelled Boers Found South African Republic-Constitu- tion Granted to New South W\ales-Parliament Passes Bills for Gradual Reduction of Corn Duties. Income Tax, and Extension of Copyright-Notable Literary Events-New Inventions-Meyer For- mulates Doctrine of Conservation of Energy-Parliament Rejects Second Monster Charter Petition-Thirty Days' Strike Wellington, Made Commander-in-Chief, Introduces Reforms in Army Equipalment -British Capture Shanghai and Other Chinese Ports-The Fleet Threatens Nanking, and Peace is Concluded-Chinese Pay Heavy Indemnity, but Successfully Keep Endorsement of Opium Trade Out of Treaty-Webster-Ashbtirton Treaty Signed-Hawaii is Brought under Monroe Doctrine Dickens Pays First Visit to America-Fr- mont Leads Expedition to California-Various Changes in Spanish- American Governments-France Annexes Marquesas Islands-Prose- cutes Algerian War at Heavy Cost-Death of Duke of Orphans Alters Succession to Throne-Blane and Proudlhon Publish Communistic and Anarchistic Treatises-Deaths of "Stendhal," the Novelist, and Cherubini, the Composer-Gervinus Publishes Appeal for German Unity in His "History of German Literature"-The King of Prus- sia Uses Resumption of Work on Cologne Cathedral to Point to Same Ideal-Nicholas I Makes Concessions to Modern Ideas-Rus- sian Literature Flourishes-National Guards Revolt at Barcelona- They are Forced to Surrender. tT-S HE situation of the British in Afghanistan wvas so critical that they could not avenge the murder of their countryimen. Negotiations wvere actually re- newed with Akbar Khan upon his statement that he had not meant to murder the British envov, but had been goaded into the act by the taunts of McNaghten. Promises of safe conduct were obtained. In January the British forces began their retreat from Kabul. Then followed a series of treach- eries and mutual breaches of faith. Akbar Khan and his hordes of Afghans dogged the retreating column, exacting further concessions. The English women and children were demanded as hostages. From the heights of the Khaibar Pass the Ghilzai mountaineers poured a destructive fire into the Englishmen. Akbar Khan's followers made common .609 RELIEF OF JELLALABAD cause with them. Thousands of Englishmen were slain, or perished in the deep snows of the Khaibar Pass. The wounded and those who fell behind were butchered by the Afghans. A fortnight sufficed to cut the whole column to pieces. Of the entire force of 4,000 soldiers and 12,000 fol- lowers, one single survivor, Brydon, a surgeon, who dragged himself on all fours, succeee(ld in reaching Jellalabad. Colonel Stoddart and Captain Connelly had been sent as British emissaries to Bokhara. When the news of the British massacre at Kabul reached Bokhara, both men were promptly thrown into prison. Later, when the news of the British disaster in the Khaibar Pass reached Bokhara, the Ameer had the two envoys beheaded in the market-place. Such was the state of affairs in India when Lord Ellen- borough landed at Calcutta in February, to succeed Lord Auckland as Governor-General. The first trying need was to rescue the remaining British garrisons at Jellalabad and Kandahar. General Pollock, with a strong force of Sepoys, was sent through the Punjab and Pesha-war. In April he pushed his way through the Khaibar Pass, in the face of fierce resistance from the mountaineers. The relieving force reached Jellalabad none too soon. General Sale and his gar- rison were fighting for time. In a last sortie they had just inflicted a telling defeat on Akbar Khan and his besieging armv. From Kabul the boy sovereign of the Afghans fled out of Akbar Khan's reach and put himself under the pro- tection of General Pollock. Akbar Khan now wrote to Gen- eral Pollock, offering to deliver up his British prisoners and hostages if he would withdraw from Afghanistan. Lord Ellenborough showed himself inclined to accept this propo- sition. The British officers at the front were furious. Gen- eral Pollock wrote to Nott at Kandahar not to move until further instructions, while he himself reported to headquar- ters that he could not retire to Jellalabad for want of traii,- 610 1842 BOERS FOUND TRANSVAAL ports. Eventually, Lord Ellenborough consented to modify his instructions. Without waiting for this, General Nott was already marching on Kabul. Pollock, accompanied by Sale, left Jellalabad to support Nott's advance. In the Te- zeen Valley the British came upon the scene of one of the bloodiest massacres of the retreat from Kabul. The sight of the murdered bodies of their comrades exasperated the sol- diers. The heights around were bristling with Akbar Khan's men. In the face of a mlurderous fire from their inatchlocks, the British stormed the heights and gave no quarter. Akbar Khan fled into the northern hills. In September Nott's col- imnii took Kabul. The city was turned over to loot and massacre. The great bazaar, one of the handscinest stone structures of Central Asia, was blown up by gunpowder. y3v the express orders of Lord Ellenborough the sacred san- dalwood gates of Somnath, which had adorned the tomb of Mahmud of Ghasni since the eleventh century, were brought away as trophies of war. These atrocities kept alive the fierce hatred of all things British in Afghanistan for years to come. In South Africa, too, the seeds of enduring hatred were sown at this time. Scarcely had the new Boer community in Zululand become well settled when a proclamation was issued in Cape Town, declaring that Natal should become a British territory. Soldiers were despatched to Durban to support this claim. After some sharp fighting the Boers were driven out of the seaport. When the British Commis- sioner arrived at Pietermaritzburg, a stormy mass meeting was held. In the end the Boer women passed a unanimous resolution that rather than submit to English rule they would emigrate once more. Pointing to the Drakensberg Moun- tains, the oldest of the women said: "We go across those mountains to freedom or to death." Over these mountains almost the whole population of Natal trekked their way into B11 1842 PARLIAMENT LAYS INCOME TAX the uninhabited regions beyond, founding once more their commonwealth, known later as the Transvaal, or South African Republic. In Australia the first representative constitution was granted to the English colonists of New South Wales. Al- most simultaneously with this began the agitation for separating Victoria from New South Wales. In England, early in the Parliamentary session, Sir Rob- ert Peel on behalf of the Government moved his famous bill for a sliding scale of the duties on corn. In the debate that followed, the most notable speeches were made by Cobden and Mlacaulay, who advocated complete free trade. The bill was passed on the 5th of April. To encounter a financial deficit of pound;2,570,000 and meet the heavy expenditures for the wars in India and China, Peel resorted to an income tax. This bill, too, was carried through Parliament with tolerable speed, and was passed with handsome majorities by both Houses. It called for a tax of sevenpence on every pound of annual income above pound;150. In emulation of the new provisions for copyright in France, a bill was enacted to extend English copyright from twenty-eight to forty-two years. Among the considera- tions which prompted Parliament to perform this long de- layed act of justice was the recent lamented death of Sir Walter Scott. The royalties on his works were the only re- source left to his family, and the copyright on the most important of them, the Waverley Novels, was about to expire. Southey, the Poet Laureate, before his recent illness, it was stated, had been deterred from undertaking a projected great work by the unsatisfactory copyright provisions. Words- worth was about to lose the fruits of some of his earliest and most patriotic poems. Among those who actively pressed the measure were Charles Dickens and Thomas Carlyle. The sixty years' copyright demanded in Carlyle's petition was 612 1842 THE SECOND CHARTIST PETITION not obtained; but authors were allowed to retain the property of their works during life, while their heirs could possess it for seven years after their death. Coincident with this lit- erary victory came other triumphs in literature. Thomas B. Macaulay published his "Lays of Ancient Rome"; Alfred Tennyson brought out "Locksley Hall" and other poems; Bulwer Lytton finished "Zanoni"; the new Shakespeare So- ciety issued some twenty volumes of researches. A new impetus to the making of books and printing was given by Woolwich's new system of electrotyping, and Charles Young's new device of a typesetting machine, first employed on the "Family Herald." It was then, too, that Dr. Julius Robert Meyer, an ob- scure physician in Heilbronn, published a paper in Liebig's "Annalen," entitled "The Force of Inorganic Nature." Not merely the mechanical theory of heat, but the entire doctrine of the conservation of energy was clearly formulated. It is true that he was anticipated in a measure by Mohi, but Helm- holtz, who in after years exhaustively demonstrated the truth of the hypothesis, credits Meyer with the first clear formula- tion of the doctrine. A great gain for humanity was made in Lord Ashley's successful bill for the restriction of work done by women and children in mines and collieries. Under the leadership of O'Connell's former Irish rival, Feargus O'Connor, the agitation for a People's Charter was revived. On Mlay 2 another monster petition, containing nearly 3,500,000 signa- tures, was rolled into Parliament. Too voluminous to pass through the doors, it had to be cut up and carried into the hall by sixteen men. A motion to consider it was vio- lently opposed by Macaulay. Once more the petition was rejected by 287 over 49 votes. Now followed one of the most singular labor strikes of England. This was the so- called sacred month, or thirty days' idleness to be enforced 613 18U2 END OF CHIN'ESE WAR throughout the United Kingdom. Within a few days the Chartists could boast that for fifty miles round Manchester every loom was still. The attempt to extend the strike to London was followed by the arrest of O'Connor and nearly 100 of his associates. They were tried and convicted, but owing to a flaw in the indictment sentence could not be carried out. The agitation was made to appear more serious by two attempts to assassinate the Queen in May and July. In August the Duke of Wellington was reinstated as commander-in-chief of the British army. Among the mili- tary reforms undertaken was the general introduction of the percussion-cap musket in the infantry, and the use of the carbine in the artillery. The war in China was brought to a close. The long period of inaction following the occupa- tion of Ningpo had been broken in March by Chinese at- tempts to recapture Ningpo, Chinhai, and Chusan. In all three places the British beat off their assailants. At Ningpo the Chinese succeeded in breaking through the south and west gates, and reached the centre of the city only to be mowed down there by the British artillery. At Tszeki a strong Chinese camp was captured by the British. The Chi- nese losses on this occasion were over 1,000 killed, includ- ing many of the Imperial Guards. The British casualties did not exceed 40. A naval expedition next attacked Cha- 1)0, China's port of trade with Japan. The main body of the Chinese was routed, but 300 of their soldiers shut themselves up in a walled inclosure, and held their ground until three-fourths of their nimber were slain. As hereto- fore, the British casualties were small. The important city of Shanghai was captured without appreciable resistance. The most serious affair of the war was the attack on Chin- kiangfoo on the southern bank of the Yang-tse-Kiang at one of the entrances of the great canal. A part of the Man- chu garrison held out there until shot down to the last man. 614 1842 THE WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY The inner Tatar city was only taken after the Manchus had first killed the women and children and then themselves. The immediate losses of the British were nearly two hun- dred. Owing to the intense heat, they failed to bury the bodies of the Chinese. Pestilence and cholera broke out, and caused more serious losses than befell the main force sent against Nanking. On August 5 the British fleet appeared before Nanking, the second city of the Empire. It was then that Minister Elepoo, the leader of the Chinese peace party, prevailed upon Emperor Taouk-Wang to give in. On Au- gust 26 peace was concluded on board the British flagship "Cornwallis." China paid an indemnity of 21,000,000, and confirmed the cession of Hong Kong to England. The English opium factory at Canton was to be reinstalled, and, in addition to this, foreign trading was to be allowed at the ports of Shanghai, Ningpo, Amoy, and Foochow, after a tariff should have been agreed upon and consular officers appointed. The final ceremonies of peace were marred by barbarous injuries inflicted upon the famous porcelain tower of Nanking by a party of British officers and soldiers. In the words of a British historian: "The only weak point in the commercial treaty was that it contained no reference to opium. Sir Henry Pottinger failed to obtain the assent of the Chinese Government to its legalization." On this point the Emperor had been inflexible. Himself a reformed opium smoker, he had lost three sons by this vice. To all proposals to legalize the opium trade he replied: "Nothing will induce me to raise revenue from the vice and misery of my people." The Webster-Ashburton treaty, regulating the northeast- ern boundary between the United States and Canada, was signed on August 9. A strip of territory claimed by the State of Maine was ceded to Canada, while a more important strip was yielded to Vermont and ,New York. The treaty 615 1842 FRtMONT'S EXPEDITION also provided for a joint repressive action against the slave trade, and for the extradition of criminals. In England the treaty was confirmed with difficulty. It was termed "Ash- burton's Capitulation," and Lord Palmerston went so far as to attribute its concessions to Ashburton's partiality toward his American wife. Credit also belongs to Webster for his strong stand made at the time the Hawaiian Islands were threatened by a French expedition. It was then stated, as reiterated by President Tyler to Congress, that, in view of the preponderant inter- course of the United States with those islands, the American Government would insist that no European nation should colonize or possess them, nor subvert the native governments. After a settlement of these international questions, Daniel Webster was permitted to resign his secretaryship to join the Whig opposition on the floor of the House. His resignation was the more readily accepted since he was known to be out of harmony with the Administration's designs against Mlex- ico. In the Senate Henry Clay resigned his seat, the better to carry on his canvass as a candidate for the Presidency. At the time that Charles Dickens paid his first visit to America the agitation for a better copyright law was re- newed, and was in a measure successful. Dickens's early impressions of the United States, as published later in Eng- land, were distinctly unfavorable to the American people. Had he lingered longer he might have witnessed the laying of the first submarine telegraph between Governor's Island and New York City. In the extreme West another outlet toward the Pacific Ocean was found by Fremont and Kit Carson in the south pass of the Rocky Mountains. In Central America General Mlorazan invaded Costa Rica to reestablish by force the federation of the Central American States. At first he was welcomed by the population and recognized as President of Costa Rica. But later, as the 616 1842 FRENCH COMMUNISTIC PHILOSOPHERS guerrilla war dragged itself out, the opposition gained ground. Jos6 Maria Alfaro was recognized as President. In South Amneriea General Rosas made another attempt to subject -Montevideo. Gold was discovered in UTruguay. In the West Indies the restoration of peace in Cuba was followed by edu- cational, far-reaching reforms. Another revolution in Haiti provoked French interference. The French squadron that had made demonstrations in the Caribbean Sea presently descended upon the Marquesas Islands in the southern Pacific, and annexed them to France. In Africa the war against Abd-el-Kader was pushed forward. The Arabs attacked Mostaganem and Arzee, and lured Yus- stuf, the commander of the new French corps of native Spahis, into an ambush. General Valler, with a division of 9.000 men, drove Abd-el-Kader from an intrenched pass between Medah and Muzaia; but the French lost heavily. The Alge- rian war during this year alone cost 12O000 lives and 50,000,- 000 francs. Valle was superseded by Bugeaud. The French general elections had just resulted in favor of the Government, when, on July 13, the Duke of Orlkans was killed by a fall from his carriage. After this event the Chambers fixed the succession to the throne upon the Duke of Nemours, until the children of the Duke of Orleans should be of age. By this time the socialistic theories of Saint Simon and Fourier were exploited still further by Louis Blanc and Proudhon. Blanc's writings had an immense vogue among the workmen of Paris. This was especially true of his "Organization of Labor," published this year, wherein he proclaimed the opportunity to work as a social right. Proud- hon carried Etienne Cabet's "Icarian" theories so far that in his famous book, "What is Propertyv" after describing the conditions under which property is held according to the Na- poleonic Code, he delivered the categorical dictum, "If this 617 1842 DEATH OF CHERUBINI be property, then property is theft." Other popular books of the day were Eugene Sue's "The Mysteries of Paris," and George Sand's famous novel "Consuelo." Marie Henri Beyle, known better under his pseudonym, "Stendhal," died during this year. As a novelist he was the precursor of the naturalistic school of romance in France. Another notable figure in Paris passed away with Luigi Cherubini, the great Italian composer. Cherubini's best opera, "The Water Carrier," was brought out in Paris and London in 1800 and 1801. Owing to his disregard of Na- poleon's musical opinions, Cherubini found himself out of favor throughout the First Empire in France. He retired to the estate of his friend, Prince de Chimay, and would have given up music but for the latter's request to write a Mass for his chapel. The result was the celebrated three-part Mass in F, which proved such a success that Cherubini thence- forw-ard devoted himself to sacred music. After Napoleon's fall he received an appointment at the Paris Conservatory of Music, from the directorship of which he did not retire until 1841. Cherubini's voluminous compositions reveal him as one of the great modern masters of counterpoint.. Germanv about this same time lost her great Oriental scholar, F. W. Genesius. Bunsen invented his carbon battery. Gervinus, the banished Hanoverian professor, brought out his History of German Literature, which ended with a stir- ring appeal for political unity. The same ideal in the na- tional if not democratic sense was voiced by the King of Prussia during the ceremonies commemorating the resump- tion of work on the great Cathedral of Cologne. Frederick William IV, fresh from the riots of Berlin, declared: "The spirit that builds this cathedral is the same that has broken our chains, and the disgrace of foreign domination over this German river-it is the spirit of German strength and unity." Even Archduke John, the uncle of the Emperor of Austria, 618 1842 REFORMS IN RUSSIA proposed this toast: "No Austria, no Prussia; but a great united Germany-firm-rooted as her mountains." In Russia a concession to modern ideas was made bv Czar Nicholas, in his ukase of April 14, permitting the great land- holdlers to liberate their serfs. Another imperial ukase em- powered the Government to take over church lands upoil conidemnation proceedings and money payments. Russian literature, notwithstanding the strict censorship, flourished during this period. A new source of poetry was discovered by Koltsov in the Slavic folk songs. Gribovodov's new com- edy, "Too Clever by Half," had already become one of the stock pieces. The success of this play was rivaled by Gogol's comedy, "The Revisor." In 1842 this same writer brought out his celebrated romance, "Dead Souls." Ivan Turgenyev was just entering upon his career. Toward the close of the year new troubles broke out in Spain. In November a popular insurrection at Barcelona was joined by the National Guards. Following upon a bitter fight in the streets of the city, on November 15, the Guards retired into the citadel, where they held their ground. After one month's stubborn resistance there, they were subjected to such heavy artillery fire that they were glad to surrender to Espartero's government forces on Christmas Eve. 619 1842 EVENTS OF 1843 Napier's March Over Desert of Beluchistan-He Destroys Fortress of Emaun-Ghur-Beluchees Drive Outram Out of Hyderabad-Napier Wins Battles of Meanee and Hyderabad-British Oecupy IHydera- bad and lMoorpoor-Great Britain Annexes Scinde-Progress of Free-Trade Mlovement-O'Connell Continues Agitation for Irish H1ome Rule-" 'Becca Riots" against Turnpike Tolls in Wales- Miscellaneous Notable Events-Death of Southey-Wordsworth Made Poet-Lanureate-Events in American Literature-Webster Speaks at Dedication of Bunker Hill Monument-Political Changes in Spanish America-Spanish Cortes Proclaims Isabella as Queen -Guizot Plans Marriage of Isabella and Her Sister to Sons of Louis Philippe-Magyars and Croats Squabble Over Prohibition of Latin in Hungarian Diet-France Annexes Tahiti-Colonel Lamor- cire Organizes "Foreign Legion" in Algiers-China Opens Treaty Ports to All Foreigners-Young Queen of Sindia Rebels against British Rule-Fier Sikhs are Defeated at Maharajpore and Punniar -She is Deposed. O carrv on the British war with Afghanistan it was necessary to pass troops through Scinde. The Ameers remonstrated. Emaun-Ghur, in the Desert of Beluchistan, was a stronghold where the Ameers could gather a numerous army unobserved by the English. Sir Charles Napier determined to strike for this point with a small force, capable of speedily traversing the desert. On the night of January 5 he commenced his perilous adventure. With 360 Irish soldiers on camels, with 200 of the irregular cavalry, with 10 camels laden with provisions, and with 80 carrying water, he set forth. When the fortress, which no European eye had before seen, was reached, it was found deserted. Immense stores of ammunition had been left, behind. Napier blew up the fortress, and, after great privations on the march back, re- joined the main army on the 23d near Hyderabad. The Duke of Wellington said that the march to Emaun-Ghur was one of the most arduous military feats of which he knew. On February 12 the Ameers at Hyderabad, who, according to the British Resident, Major Outram, had been "cruelly .620 BRITISH ANNEX SCINDE wronged," came to terms. On the day after their apparent submission Outram was attacked by the infuriated Beluchees With 100 followers he barely succeeded in fighting his way through to two British war steamers lying in the river. Napier, with his 2,600 men, now moved against the Beluchee army, numbering nearly 10,000. On February 17 the oppos- ing forces met at Meanee. It proved an all-day fight. Most of the white officers fell. In the end Napier closed the doubt- ful struggle by a decisive cavalry charge. The Sepoy horse- men charged through the Beluchee army and stormed the batteries on the ridge of the hill of Meanee. Napier followed up his victory the next day by a message sent into Hyderabad that he would storm the city unless it surrendered. Six of the Ameers came out and laid their swords at his feet. Another enemy remained-Shere Ma- homed of Meerpoor. On March 24 Napier, with 5 `00O troops, attacked this chief, who had come with 20,000 Belu- chees before the walls of Hiyderabad. Napier won another brilliant victory, which was followed up by the British occu- pation of Meerpoor. The spirit of the Beluchees was so broken that after two slight actions in June, when Shere Mahomed was routed and fled into the desert, the war was at an end. Scinde was annexed to the British Empire. At home, in the meanwhile, the Chartist agitation, with its "sacred month" strike, was carried over into this year, while the leaders were tried before the Lancashire Assizes. Popular meetings were held at Birmingham, Manchester, and London. O'Connor, after his suspension of sentence in court, made the mistake of setting himself against the anti-corn law agitation led by Cobden and Bright. To most Englishmen of the day the free-trade issue appeared the most momentous. O'Connor's star paled accordingly. Early in the year a new free-trade hall had been opened in London, the largest room for public meetings in the United Kingdom. A dozen lee- XIXth Century-Vol. 11-9 621 1843 DEATH OF SOUTHEY turers were kept busy. Cobden alone addressed some thirty great country meetings during the first half of the year. At the same time the Irish agitation for repeal of the legislative union with England assumed formidable proportions. The Irish secret society of the "IMolly Maguires" spread alarm- ingly. On March 16 Daniel O'Connell addressed 30,000 persons at Trimm, urging repeal of the act of uniited legisla- tion for Ireland and Great Britain. A few months later several hundred thousand people gathered on the hill of Tara to listen to his eloquent words. As a result of this agitation, O'Connell, with several of his followers, was arrested, in October, on charges of sedition. Simultaneously with this the so-called " 'Becca Riots" against turnpike tolls broke out in Wales. One month after O'Connell's arrest the greatest free-trade meeting of the year was held at Manchester. Both Cobden and Bright made speeches against the corn laws. One hundred thousand pounds were collected on the spot from wealthy manufacturers who attended the meeting. Other events that excited the attention of Englishmen were the erection of the great Nelson column in Trafalgar Square and the opening of the Thames tunnel for pedestrians. Nasmyth invented his steam hammer. Mill published his "System of Logic." The event of the year in English letters was the death of Robert Southey, the Poet Laureate. During the last few vears his brain had softened, and his mind had become enfeebled. Southey was born at Bristol in 1774. His first long narrative poem, "Joan of Arc," written at the age of nineteen, achieved instant and remarkable popularity. At the opening of the nineteenth century he published the "wild and wondrous song" of "Thalaba, the Destroyer," founded on Moslem mythology. "Kehema," founded on Hindu lore, followed. In 1803, after some years of wandering, the poet went to live at Greta Hall, near Keswick, which remained his home until his death. In 1813 he was made Poet Laureate. 622 1843 DEDICATION OF BUNKER HILL MONUMENT Unlike his great contemporaries, Lord Byron and Sir Walter Scott, Southey never achieved a great material success. In 1835, when he was sixty-one years old, he wrote to Sir Robert Peel while declining the offer of a baronetcy: "Last year for the first time in mv life I was provided with a year's expendi- ture beforehand." Yet his works at this time filled nearly a hundred volumes. After Southey's death William Wordsworth was made Poet Laureate. His acceptance of this benefice from the Government incensed his moral radical friends. Robert Browning then wrote the famous invective lines entitled "The Lost Leader," and beginning: "Just for a handful of silver he left us, Just for a ribbon to stick in his coat." America this year lost three of her prominent literary men by the deaths of Allston, the poet and painter, Noah Webster, the lexicographer, and Key, the author of "The Star-Spangled Banner." The historian Prescott now brought out his great "Conquest of Mexico." Longfellow published his "Spanish Student." Edgar Allan Poe wrote his stories of "The Tell-Tale Heart" and "The Pit and the Pendulum," and the striking poem, "The Conqueror Worm." His fear- ful tale of the "Black Cat" was published in the "Saturday Evening Post." On June 17 the new Bunker Hill Monument of Boston was dedicated amid impressive ceremonies. Daniel Webster, who as a young man had spoken there when the cornerstone was laid by Lafayette, was once more the orator of the day. In the South Jefferson Davis began his political career as a member of the Mississippi Convention, as did Andrew John- son of Tennessee, who was then elected to Congress. The pending negotiations with Great Britain concerning the pos- session of Oregon were made more momentous by the exodus 623 1843 ISABELLA MADE QUEEN OF SPAIN of some thousand American emigrants from Missouri, on an overland journey to distant Oregon. The first session of the Thirty-eighth Congress, in December, showed a Democratic majority in the House of sixty-nine votes. Under the Whig regime the policy of a great navy had been developed. A bill for a large increase in ships was passed. Tyler's last message recommended the annexation of Texas, for which a treaty was pending. It was voted down in the Senate by a two-thirds vote. Under the shadow of impending war with the United States, a new Constitution was proclaimed in Mexico. Santa Anna prepared for the conflict by assuming the practical powers of a dictator. In Ecuador, too, a new Constitution was adopted. General Flores had himself made President for a third time. When the opposition to him became too formidable, he consented to yield and quit the country after accepting a bonus of 20,000 and the title of generalissimo. Another revolution in Haiti resulted in the expulsion of President Boyer. In Spain a revolutionary junta in June once more as- sumed power at Barcelona. Other parts of the country de- clared for the ex-Queen Regent Christina. On July 15 General Narvaez compelled the surrender of Madrid to Chris- tina. General Espartero laid siege to Seville. On November 8 the Spanish Cortes proclaimed as Queen Princess Isabella, then in her thirteenth year. With the crown of Spain on the head of a young girl, and no immediate successor in sight but her sister, the King of France and his Prime Minister, Guizot, deemned the time ripe for action. It was proposed to marry both Spanish princesses to the sons of Louis Philippe, so as to secure the throne of Spain to the House of Orleans, as it had once been secured to that of Bourbon. During the negotiations over the new extradition treaty with England, the project was confidentially broached to Lord Aberdeen. 624 1843 MAGYARS PROHIBIT LATIN Hle gave his consent to the proposed marriage of the Duke of Montpensier to the Infanta Fernanda, on the express under- standing that it should not be celebrated until Queen Isabella had been married herself, and had children. For some time still the plan hung fire. In the meanwhile Hungary was once more in uproar. lossuth, after his release from prison in 1840, had become the spokesman of the new generation of Magyars. The other wings of the Hungarian party were led by Scechenvi and DWak. By the time the Hungarian Diet of 1843 was con- voked, all parties united in demanding the most important reforms, i. e., of a new electoral system, a new criminal code, trial by jury, and official recognition of the Magyar language. One of the first resolutions of the Lower Chamber was that no language but Magyar should be permitted in debate, and that all persons ;ncapable of speaking Magyar should gradu- ally be excluded from all public employment. Against the prohibition of Latin in the Diet, the Croatians appealed to the Government. The Emperor promptly vetoed the resolu- tion. Upon the publication of the imperial rescript a popular storm broke forth in Hungary. At Agram, the capital of Croatia, the two factions fought on the streets. The Austrian Cabinet receded from its position. A compromise was ac- cepted whereby Latin was to be permitted in the Hungarian Diet for the next six years. Of all the important schemes for reform brought before the Hungarian Diet of this year, only the language compro- mise became law. This was due to the fact that the members of the Lower House were bound to vote as directed by the provincial assemblies, which vetoed everything affecting their local interests. To do away with this anomaly Kossuth and his followers now set themselves to bring their appeal before the country at large. Kossuth dropped the pen and became an orator. 625 1843 THE "FOREIGN LEGIO'N" In other parts of the world the spread of Western civiliza- tion was carried on with accustomed vigor. A French squad- ron seized Tahiti in the Society Islands. In Algiers the war against Abd-el-Kader was kept alive by occasional raids and by buying over the less faithful of his followers. The natives were enrolled in the French armay in regiments of Turcos, Zonaves, and Spahis. The barbaric glamnouir of their Oriental garb, as well as the reputation of their dashing leader, Colonel Lamorciere, attracted many Frenchmen and foreign adventurers to this service. Soon there were enough men to form the famous "Foreign Legion," celebrated by Mrs. He- mans in her poem beginning: "A soldier of the Legion lay dying at Algiers." In China, after the ratification of the Nanking treaty, the five treaty ports were opened to all foreigners on the same footing as to Englishmen. Long before this the Rus- sians had already established themselves in certain parts of China. The smoldering resentment against the white men found vent in the truculent doings of the anti-foreign society of the "Green Water Lily" in Iloonan. Now trouble broke out in the Punjab. Jankoji Bao Sin- dia had died in February, and his widow, a girl of twelve, now ruled over the Sikhs. She outwitted her native Minister, who was supported by the British. Lord Ellenborough has- tened to interfere. He ordered the British army to advance to Gwalior, under Sir Hugh Gough, in December. All Sin- dia made common cause against the foreigner. The Sikh warriors tried to oppose the British advance in two simulta- neous battles at Maharajpore and Punniar, fought on the twenty-ninth day of December. Both engagements resulted in their defeat. The Queen and her Ministers were deposed, and the Sikh army was reduced to 6,000 men. 626 1843 EVENTS OF 1844 Lord Aberdeen Notifies American Government of England's Desire to have Texas Abolish Slavery-Gun Explosion on the "Princeton" Kills Secretary of State Upshur-Calhoun Succeeds Him-In Reply to Aberdeen's Note He Announces Intention to Annex Texas-Senate Rejects Texan Treaty-Mob Lynches Joseph Smith, the Mormon- Morse Sends First Telegram Between Baltimore and Washington- Other Notable Scientific Events-New English Books-Deaths of Burdett, Liberal Statesman, and Dalton, the Chemist-Daniel O'Connell Convicted of Sedition-His Sentence is Reversed-Par- liament Passes Gladstone's Bill for Government Regulation of Rail- roads, Looking to Ultimate Ownership-Santo )oDmingo Separates from Haiti-Revolution in Greece against Absolutism Gains Hollow Victory-Government Graft Continues as Before Calabrian Revolt is Ruthlessly Crushed-Death of Bernadotte-Swedish Progress in Science and Literature-Accession of Oscar I-He Inaugurates Re- forms-Deaths of Thorvaldsen, the Sculptor, Joseph Bonaparte, and Saint-Hilaire, the Naturalist-New French Books-French Whip Sultan of Morocco and Form Alliance with Him against Abd-el- Kader, the Algerian-General Zurbano Leads Military Revolt In Spain. AI'TER the retirement of Daniel Webster from the A State Department, President Tyler began active ef- I L forts toward the annexation of Texas. The MAexi- can Government, learning of this movement, notified the United States that annexation wonld be regarded as a cause for war. Texas had first asked for American interference, and, failing in this, turned to Great Britain. The debt of Texas was largely owed in England, and it was the policy of Liord Aberdeen, accordingly, to encourage her independence. At Great Britain's motion, Mexico agreed to the indepen- dence of Texas on the pledge of that republic not to permit herself to be annexed bv any other country. In February a note by Lord Aberdeen was transmitted to the American Government, stating that Great Britain desired to see slavery abolished in Texas, as elsewhere, but disclaimed any inten- tion unduly to force that point. This statement in itself whetted the desire of the Southern States of the Union to incorporate Texas among the slaveholding States. Calhoun, 627 LYNCHING OF JOSEPH SMITH who as early as 1836 had demanded the annexation of Texas on behalf of the interests of Southern slavery, was invited to join Tyler's Cabinet as Secretary of State. The office had been rendered vacant February 28 by the calamitous explo- sion of a new monster gun on the U.S.S. "Princeton," killing Secretary of State Upsbur and Secretary Gilmer of the Navy in the immediate vicinity of President Tyler. Calhoun entered office on March 6, and on April 12 the Texan treaty of annexation was signed. On April 18 Calhoun answered Lord Aberdeen's note, declaring that "the British avowal made it the imperious duty of the Federal Government to con- clude in self-defence a treaty of annexation with Texas." As to this transaction, Von Holst, Calhoun's biographer, has said: "It may not be correct to apply, without modification, the code of private ethics to politics; but, however flexible politi- cal morality may be, a lie is a lie, and Calhoun knew there was not a particle of truth in these assertions." The annexa- tion treatv was held back in the American Senate until the Democratic Convention of 1844 had declared for the rean- nexation of Texas. In the hope that this would secure rati- fication the treaty was submitted in June, but the Senate once more rejected it by 35 to 16 votes. Undismayed by this, President Tyler within three days sent another message to the House of Representatives asking for reconsideration of the subject, but the matter went over until after the Presi- dential campaign in the autumn. Henry Clay's vacillating stand throughout this controversy proved fatal to his Presi- dential aspirations. During this same year the Indians surrendered the re- gions adjoining Lake Superior, which were promptly settled by white men. Iron was then discovered at Marquette and copper at Keweenaw Point. At Nauvoo, Illinois, where the Mormons had just erected a temple, their revival of pa- triarchal polygamy excited the wrath of the people. Riots 628 1844 MORSE'S FIRST TELEGRAM broke out June 27. The Mormon leader, Joseph Smith, and his brother, Hyrum, who had been lodged in jail at Carthage, Illinois, on the charge of treason, were dragged out by a inob and killed. Under the leadership of Brigham Young, the Mormons moved to the West, founding in 1847 Salt Lake City in Utah. By means of a Congressional grant of 30,000, Samiuel B. F. Morse constructed his first telegraph line over the forty miles between Baltimore and Washington. The first message, "What hath God wrought !" is still preserved by the Con- necticut Historical Society. Before this Alfred Vail had perfected his telegraph code of alphabetical signs, with his dry point reading register and relay key. -Now Ezra Cornell contributed his invention of an inverted cup of glass for in- sulating live wires. Dr. Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Connecticut, firs' employed nitrous oxide gas, popularly known as laughing gas, in extracting one of his own teeth. In England Faraday published his first "Experimental Researches in Electricity." The anonymous publication of "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation," containing the first enunciation of Darwin's doctrine of the origin of species by evolution, was followed by a storm of controversy. Another subject for controversy was furnished by the invention of the new tonic system in music (Do re mi fa). Kingsley brought out his "Village Sermons," while Max Muller came into prominence by his new edition and translation of "Hito- padesa," a collection of old Hindu fables. The necrology of the year in England includes John Dalton, the physicist, and Sir Francis Burdett, the parliamentarian and popular leader, who did so much for liberty of speech and of the press. John Dalton, a strangely original genius, and per- haps the greatest theoretical chemist of his generation, first. came into prominence by showing that water existed in air as an independent gas. The wonderful theory of atoms, on 629 1844 TRIAL OF O'CONNELL which the whole gigantic structure of modern chemistry rests, was the logical outgrowth of the original conception of this country-bred, self-taught Quaker. A feature of the year was the sensational trial of Daniel O'Connell and his associates on charges of sedition in Ireland. On May 30 O'Connell was sentenced to imprisonment for one year and fined pound;2,000. After Lord Heytesbury's advent as Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland the judgment of the Irish Court of Queen's Bench against O'Connell was reversed and O'Connell and his associates were liberated. Bar- ing's bill granting a renewal of the Bank of England's charter was now passed with a handsome Govei nment ma- jority. The new Royal Exchange was opened by the Queen in October. Another measure which was speedily passed through Parliament, owing to the slight importance attached to it, was Gladstone's bill requiring the railroads of England to provide proper accommodations and to run cheap trains dailv. The Government was authorized, with the approval of Parliament, to undertake the gradual purchase of all existing railways before the year 1866. Minor events of importance to Englishmen were the foundation of the Young Men's Christian Association by certain dry-goods clerks of London, and the demolition of the notorious Fleet Prison, made immortal by the novels of Dickens. The discovery of gold in South Australia drew hordes of immigrants to that colony. Others were attracted to Amer- ica by the discovery of diamonds in Brazil. In the West Indies the successful rising against President Boyer of Haiti resulted in the foundation of the Black Republic of Santo Domingo. President Riviere, at the head of 20,000 negroes from Haiti, was defeated and had to abandon his attempt to subdue the Dominicans. Guerier superseded him as Presi- dent of Haiti. The warlike spirit of these negroes spread to the neighboring island of Cuba. Various armed risings 630 1844 DEATH OF BERNADOTTE of the blacks in the province of Santiago and elsewhere were sternly put down by the Spaniards and their white de- scendants in Cuba. A bloodless revolution in Greece resulted in the dismissal of King Otto's Bavarian Ministry and the King's acceptance of a Constitution, which left the IKing almost as absolute as before. Yet his government was weak and slipshod. The wretched fiscal system and heavy taxation of the old Turkish r6gime were retained, while ill-managed innovations from Bavaria, such as military conscription, drove large numbers to brigandage. As an American traveler remarked at the time: "The whole Greek Government is one enormous job." The long-smoldering discontent of the common people in Italy and Sicily, fomented by the secret agitation of such men as AMazzini and Garibaldi, found premature vent in a popular insurrection in Calabria. The revolt -was ruthlessly put down, and its leaders, Attilio and Emilio Bandiero, with eighteen others, were shot. On March 8 Bernadotte, latterly known as King Charles XIV of Sweden, died in his eighty-first year, universally mourned by his adopted subjects. His reign produced a new line of eminent scientists and was the golden age of Swedish literature. Berzelius remolded the science of chemistry and founded theoretical chemistry. Elias Fries devised a new system of botany. Sven Nilsson, a distinguished zoologist, also became the founder of a new science, comparative arche- ology. Schlyter brought out a complete collection of the old Scandinavian laws, a work of equal importance to philology and jurisprudence. Ling invented the Swedish system of gymnastics and founded the Institute of Gymnastics in Stock- holm, where his Swedish massage or movement cure was further developed. Geijer, as a philosopher, was a follower of Hceijer, while as a historian he attained foremost rank in Sweden. Professor of History at Upsala, he was accused of 631 is"4 DEATH OF THORVALDSEN atheism, but acquitted. As a poet and composer, Geijer also attained noteworthy success. Swedish writers were divided in factions as opposed to each other as political parties. The old Gustavian school, of which Leopold remained the last representative, was attacked by the "New School," which was inspired by German Romanticism. Of this so-called "phosphoristic" school Atterbonm was the leader. The New School was in turn opposed by the Gothic Society or Scandi- navian School, among whom were Ling and Geijer. The most famous of all modern Swedish poets was Esaias Tegner, whose "Frithiof's Saga" achieved an international reputation. Politically, he was conspicuous for his inveterate hostility to the "Holy Alliance" and its reactionary spirit in state, church, and literature. Bernadotte's son, Oscar I, was forty-five years old when he ascended the throne. Like his father, he was a patron of the fine arts. Upon his accession several important reforms were at once enacted by the new Riksdag. It was decided that this assembly should meet every third instead of every fifth year; the liberty of the press was extended, and equal rights were accorded to women in certain matters of inheri- tance and of marriage. Albert Bertal Thorvaldsen, the great Danish sculptor, died suddenly on March 25, at Copenhagen. Thorvaldsen was the son of an Icelandic sailor, who incidentally earned a living by carving wooden figureheads for ships. At the age of twenty-four young Thorvaldsen, who had attended the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Copenhagen, won the grand prize, which enabled him to pursue his studies at Rome. In the spring of 1805 Thorvaldsen made his first im- portant bas-relief, "The Abduction of Briseis," which still remains one of the most celebrated of the sculptor's works. Orders now began to come in from all over the world. Thorvaldsen executed for Napoleon I his colossal frieze rep- 632 1844 THORVALDSEN'S PUPILS resenting the "Entry of Alexander the Great into Babylon." It remains one of the largest and most ambitious of Thor- valdsen's works. It was intended for the Temple of Glory, now the Church of the Madeleine, in Paris. Before Thorvald- sen could execute the frieze in marble, Napoleon suffered his reverses and was exiled to Elba. The Bourbon Government in France refused to take the monument. A replica in mar- ble now adorns the Palace of Christianborg in Denmark. The death of Canova having left the Academy of St. Luke without a president, Pope Leo XII himself nominated Thorvaldsen to be Canova's successor, as incontestably the greatest sculptor in Rome, "even though a heretic." Thor- valdsen's stay at Rome was brought to an end by an epidemic of cholera. The Government of Denmark sent a royal frigate to Leghorn to bring Thorvaldsen and all his sculptures back to his native land. Arriving in Copenhagen, the old artist was received with even greater honor than before. In his seventy-second year he died suddenly, while attending a performance at the Royal Theatre at Copenhagen. Four years later, after the completion of the Thorvaldsen Museum, his remains were laid in the vault that had been prepared for him there, amid the rich collection of his masterpieces. As a sculptor, Thorvaldsen's name will always be linked with that of his great rival and contemporary, Canova. Both sculptors are equally remarkable for the way they returned to the classic traditions of Hellenic sculpture. It was re- served to their successors to introduce a modern note in sculpture. Like Canova, Thorvaldsen exerted great influ- ence on almost all the sculptors who came to Rome in his day. Thus Rauch declared himself indebted to him for the purity of his style. From his school in turn issued Riechel of Dresden, Drake, Wolff, and Blauser of Cologne. Among the friends of Thorvaldseu who profited by his councils were Dannecker, Schadow, and Schwanthaler. At Rome 633 1 844 DEATH OF JOSEPH BONAPARTE Tenerini, Louis Bienaim6, Pierre Galli, and Emile Wolff proved themselves apt pupils of the Danish master, while at Copenhagen his influence was kept alive by Bisson. In the same year died Joseph Bonaparte, the great Napo- leon's brother and quondam King of Naples and Spain, and Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the great French naturalist. Starting as a pure zoologist, Saint-Hilaire became the founder of the science of philosophical anatomy. This new doctrine was fully expounded in his "Anatomic Philosophy" (1819- 1822). During 1844 Comte published his "Discourse on the Positive Spirit." Pere Lacordaire brought out his "Funeral Orations," while Charles Lenormais, with other, published the great French work on "Ceramographic Monuments." Practical effect to the teachings of Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Louis Blanc was given by the establishment of the so-called Creches, or infant asylums for the temporary care of chil- dren of working mothers. Alexandre Dumas's serial novel, "The Count of Monte Cristo," appeared during the year. The foreign affairs of France throughout this year were conducted by Guizot. As a result of the military occupation of Algiers, war with Morocco broke out in May. The Prince de Joinville bombarded and captured the fortified town of Mogador. Marshal Bugeaud won a signal victory over the Moors on the banks of Isly. After the defeat of the rebellious subjects of the Sultan of Morocco, this potentate, Abder Rah- man, made common cause with the French against Abd-el- Kader. A French treatv with China was negotiated by Guizot in October. France made amends to England for the French indignities to the British Consul at Tahiti, while the independence of Hawaii was guaranteed by a joint dec- laration of France, Great Britain, and the United States. Toward the close of the year the uncertainties of government in Spain were once more made manifest by a military in- surrection. headed by General Zurbano. 634 1844 EVENTS OF 1845 Publication of Poe's "The Raven" Creates Literary Sensation-United States Annexes Texas-Boundary Between Northwest and British America Fixed at Forty-Ninth Parallel-Senate Ratifies Cushing's Treaty with China-Polk Inaugurated as President-He Appoints Buchanan Secretary of State-Taylor Occupies Territory in Dispeute Between Texas and Mexico-Death of Andrew Jackson-Spanish- American Countries Suppress Slave Trade Spain Recognizes Inde- pendence of Venezuela--Zurbano is Betrayed and Sbot-Cortes Adopts Reactionary Constitution-France Expels Jesuits-French Massalcre Tribe of Kabyles French and British Join in Aggressive Colonial Extension-British Assist Negroes against Boers--fSir John Franklin Sails on His Fatal Polar Expedition-Great Fire in Quebec-Famine in Ireland and Failure of Harvest in Great Britain Force Peel to Endorse Repeal of Corn Laws-His Cabinet Resigns, and Russell is Called on to Form New Ministry-Hle Fails, and Peel is Recalled-"Times's" Premature Announcement of Peel's Purpose to Repeal Corn Laws Bears Price of Grain-Sikh Army Crosses Sutlej-Little Marches to Meet Them and is Surrounded -British Relief Force Puts Lal Singh to Flight at Moodkee Brit- ish Forces Combine and Win Battle of Ferozeshahar-Sikhs are Driven Back Over Sutlej-Deaths of Thomas Hood, the Poet, Syd- ney Smith, the Satirist, and Elizabeth Fry, the Prison Reformer. T the beginning of the year, in America, came a lit- A erary sensation of unwonted brilliancy. In the New York "Evening M.irror," January 29, Edgar Allan Poe's famous poem "The Raven" was reprinted from the advance sheets of "The American Whig Review."' The poem was copied all over America and soon reached England. Baudelaire translated it into French. As Poe's biographer, Woodberry, has said: "No great poem ever established itself so immediately, so widely, and so imperishably in men's minds." War between the United States of North America and Mexico was now seen to be inevitable. On January 25 a joint resolution for the annexation of Texas passed through the American House of Representatives by a vote of 120 to 98, and through the Senate by 27 over 25 votes. On March 1 President Tyler signed the bill. It meant a distinct gain for the pro-slavery party in the United States, and was de- .635 DEATH OF ANDREW JACKSON nounced as such by the abolitionists of the North. Both in Mexico and in the United States active preparations were now made for war. American ships were still welcomed in the ports of Mexico, the more so since many of them brought needed munitions of war. In the United States strenuous efforts were made to settle all pending differences with other countries. The Democratic administration gave up its belli- cose ultimatum of "Fifty-four forty or fight" on the question of the boundary between our Northwest and British America, and accepted the forty-ninth parallel as a dividing line. Caleb Cushing's treaty with China was ratified by the Sen- ate. James K. Polk succeeded Tyler as the eleventh Presi- dent. He had represented Tennessee in the House for fourteen years, serving twice as Speaker. Polk appointed James Buchanan as his Secretary of State. With this question out of the way, the brunt of preparing for war now fell upon the new administration. Troops were massed within striking distance, and General Taylor was put in command of the American army. He proceeded to St. Joseph's Island, and from there crossed over to Corpus Christi on the mainland, near the mouth of the Nueces River. At this point more troops were concentrated to remain in winter quarters until the opening of hostilities. On June 8 Andrew Jackson died at "The Hermitage" in Tennessee, where he had lived quietly ever since his retirement from the Presidency. The frustration of the British attempt to keep slavery out of Texas was offset in other directions. A convention was concluded between Ecuador and Great Britain to suppress slave trading in that region. In Cuba, likewise, General Concha took measures for the total suppression of the slave trade. A law was passed making the trade a criminal offence in the Spanish West Indies. The Government of Spain after much reluctance recognized the independence of Venezuela, 636 1845 FRANCE RXPELS JESUITS Affairs in Spain had taken a new turn. On January 21 Gen- eral Zurbano was betrayed into the hands of his enemies and was shot. The Cortes adopted a reactionary constitution. In France a Liberal majority in the Chambers, after a prolonged struggle, brought about the expulsion of the Jesuits. The French war in Algeria by this time had de- generated into mere guerrilla fighting. The chief event of the year brought execration upon the arms of France. A tribe of Kabyles had taken refuge in the caves of Dahra. Unable to dislodge them from there, General Pelissier gave orders to smoke them out. Some five hundred of the tribes- men, among them women, children, and aged people, were suffocated. Colonial extension in other parts of the world was carried on in like aggressive manner. Thus a joint expedition of France and Great Britain made an attack on Tamatave in Madagascar, but failed of success. Another joint expedition of the two Powers forced the Republic of Argentine to con- cede free navigation of the La Plata River. In South Africa Governor-General Maitland of Cape Colony earned the ever- lasting hatred of the Boers by sending out an armed expedi- tion to assist the black warriors of Griqualand against the Boers. In India affairs at Lahore had reached a crisis. There the boy MIahara-jah, with his regent mother and her favorite sirdar, Lal Singh, were at the mercy of their Sikh soldiery. To save themselves they determined to launch their army upon the British. British enterprise found a vent in other ways beyond colonial conquests. In the spring of this year Sir John Franklin sailed out once more with the "Erebus" and "Ter- ror," in quest of the Northwest Passage. The last message from him was received in July. News also reached England that he had entered Lancaster Sound, but it was long after that before anything was heard concerning him. Since then 637 1845 PEEL CONVERTED TO FREE FOOD more than thirty Arctic expeditions have searched in vain for the body of Franklin. Two successive fires in midsum- mer destroyed two-thirds of the city of Quebec. Another serious calamity was the Irish famine of this vear, caused by the failure of the potato crop. The distress thus occasioned increased the agitation against the corn laws. As during the preceding year, great mass meetings were held in Birming- ham and Manchester. Sir Robert Peel, early in the year, had shown his new leanings toward free trade by the in- troduction of a bill for the abolition of import duties on no less than four hundred and thirty articles. The Govern- ment's discrimination in favor of the duties on sugar pro- voked a long debate in Parliament. Gladstone continued to support his old colleagues in the Government, while Cob- den and Bright led the Opposition on the floor of the House. By the time Parliament was prorogued in Autgust, the Minis- try had wvon a complete victory. The spread of the famine during the summer, when almost all harvests failed, reacted powerfully upon the Government. A strong public letter from the pen of Lord Russell brought the precarious position of the Government home to the Cabinet. Sir Robert Peel admitted the necessity of an absolute repeal of the corn laws. Rather than confess such a complete change of position, Peel's Cabinet resigned. Lord John Russell was summoned to form a new Cabinet. Lord Russell's attempts to form a new Ministry proved unsuccessful, largely because Lord Howick-who by the death of his father had become Earl Grey-refused to join the new Ministry on account of his objections to the foreign policy of Lord Palmerston. Sir Robert Peel was presently recalled. All of his colleagues retained their posts, except Lord Stanley, superseded by Gladstone. Soon after Peel's reentry into office, the London "Times" announced that the Cabinet had decided on proposing a measure for the repeal 638 1845 DEATH OF THOMAS HOOD of the corn laws. This premature announcement was one of the most startling journalistic "scoops" of the time. Not- withstanding all the published denials it was generally be- lieved, and was followed by a great fall in the price of corn. In the mind of the Ministry, as well as of the country at large, the threatening state of foreign affairs claimed pre- cedence. In autumn the Sikh arms of the Khalsa had crossed the Sutlej, to the number of 60,000 warriors, 40,000 armed followers, and 150 guns. Sir John Little marched out of Ferozepore with 10,000 troops and 31 gunls to offer battle, but the Sikhs preferred to surround them. Mean- while Sir Hugh Gough and Sir Henry Hardinge, the new Governor-General, hurried toward the frontier with a large relieving force. On September 18 they met the army of Lal Singh at Moodkee and won a slender success. But for the flight of Lal Singh the Sikhs might have claimed the victory. The British troops now advanced on the Sikh intrenchments, Ferozesbahar, wvlere thev effected a junction with Little. On December 21 the British advanced in force, but encountered such stubborn resistance that the dav ended in a drawn bat- tle. Not until after sunset did Gough's battalions succeed in storming the most formidable of the Sikh batteries. After a night of horrors the battle was resumed. The Sikh soldiers, who had risen in mutiny against their own leaders, fell back and yielded their strong position. The second army of the Sikhs under Tej Singh came up too late. After a brief artil- lery engagement, all the Sikh forces fell back across the Sutlej River. During this year occurred the death of Thomas Hood, the poet and humiorist. Born in 1798 as a son of a bookseller, he soon became a writer. As one of the editors of the "London Magazine," he moved among all the principal wits of the day. Hood's rich sense of humor found scope in his "Comic An- n'ial," appearing through ten successive years, and his col- 639 1845 DEATH OF SYDNEY SMITH lection of "Whimsicalities." His poems, "The Bridge of Sighs" and "The Song of the Shirt," deserve special mention. Sir Svdney Smith, the essayist, died shortly before Hood. Born in 1771, he studied for orders and became a clergyman. His famous "Letters on the Catholics, from Peter Plymley to his brother Abraham," established his reputation as a satirist. In 1824 appeared his fervent pamphlet, "The Judge that Smites Contrary to the Law." This was followed by a long series of open letters on clerical and political questions of the day. Despite all his labors for the Whig cause, he got but slender recognition from his friends in office. Some idea of Sydney Smith's pungent style may be de- rived from his famous remarks on England's taxation during the wars with Napoleon: "The schoolboy," he said, "whips his taxed top; the beardless youth manages his taxed horse with a taxed bridle on a taxed road; and the dying Englishman, pouring his medicine which has paid seven per cent into a spoon which has paid fifteen per cent, flings himself back upon his chintz bed which has paid twenty-two per cent, and expires in the arms of an apothecary, who has paid a license of pound;100 for the privilege of putting him to death. His whole property is then immediately taxed from two to ten per cent. Large fees are demanded for burving him in the chancel; his virtues are handed down to posterity on taxed marble, and then he is gathered to his forefathers to be taxed no more." Elizabeth Fry, the great English prison reformer, died on October 15. She it was that improved the condition of women prisoners at Newgate. Later her influence was ap- parent in most of the reforms introduced into the jails, houses of correction, lunatic asylums, and infirmaries of England, the abuses of which were so eloquently voiced by Dickens. 640 184S EVENTS OF 1846 Gough and Hardinge Defeat Sikhs at Sobraon-British Dictate Peace at Lahore-Commercial Panic Results from Railroad Speculation- Hard Times-Peel Announces His Conversion to Free Trade-Total Repeal of Corn Laws-Ministry Defeated on Irish Oppression Bill -Russell Succeeds Peel-Public Improvements in England-Simul- taneous Discovery of Neptune by Leverrier and Adams-Attempts at Assassination of Louis Philippe Death of Louis Bonaparte Escape of Louis Napoleon-King of Denmark Proposes to Annex Schleswig-Holstein-Death of Pope Gregory XVI-Accession of Pius IX-Polish Insurrection at Cracow-Galician Peasants Rise against Polish Nobles, who Charge Austria with Inciting the Outbreak- Austria Annexes Cracow-Revolt in Portugal-Loyalists Defeat Constitutionalists-Isabella of Spain and Her Sister Wed France's Candidates-Guizot Gains Dynastic Advantage at Cost of British Alliance-Oregon Treaty is Signed-Rae Discovers Magnetic Pole -Discovery of Anesthetic Use of Ether and Chloroform-Mexicans Begin War with Attack on Fort Brown-Taylor Wins Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma-Americans Occupy and Annex States of Northern Mexico-Kearney Annexes New Mexico-FrG- mont Annexes California-Formal Declarations of War-Worth Storms Monterey-Armistice-Santa Anna Takes Supreme Com- mand of Mexican Army-Wilmot Proviso that Annexed Territory Remain Free Soil is Passed by House-Davis of Massachusetts Blocks Action on It in Senate-Howe Invents Sewing-Machine. I N January the Sikhs recrossed the Sutlej River, entered British territory, and hostilities were renewed. On January 27 Sir Harry Smith defeated a part of the Sikh forces at Aliwal. The Sikhs threw up intrenchments at Sobraon. On February 10 the British army advanced to the attack under Gough and Hardinge. The battle proved one of the hardest fought in the history of British India. Advancing in line, the British had two battalions, mowed down by the Khalsa guns. Tej Singh broke down the bridge over the river. After fighting all day, the British at last suc- ceeded in driving the Sikhs into the Sutlej at the point of the bayonet. The victory was dearly -won. The British losses were 2,000 mnen, while the Sikhs were said to have lost 8,000. This practically ended the first Sikh war. The British army crossed the Sutlej River by means of their pontoons, and, 641 REP8AL OF CORN LAWS pushing on to Lahore, there dictated terms of peace. An in- demnity of pound;1,500,000 was exacted. It was paid by Gholab Singh, the Viceroy of Cashmere and Jamu, upon British recognition of his independence of the Sikh Govern- ment at Lahore. The British frontier was extended from the banks of the Sutlej to those of the Ravi. Sir Henry l1ardinge's services in the Sikh war were rewarded by his elevation to the peerage. In England the distress of the previous year continued, owing partly to a commercial panic brought on by overspecu- lation in railways, and partly to a repeated failure of the crops. To relieve the potato famine in Ireland, Parliament voted pound;10,000,000 for that country. In the midst of this general distress the twopenny omnibuses made their first ap- pearance in London, and the first issue of the "Daily News" appeared in the metropolis. Sir Aubrey de Vere, the Irish poet, died in his thirty-ninth year. A few years before his death he had published his "Song of Faith" and other poems. Thomas Clarkson, the great anti-slavery advocate of England, died soon afterward, in his eighty-sixth year. Early during the first Parliamentary session Sir Robert Peel avowed his complete change of face in regard to the corn laws. The rage of the protectionists was voiced by Benjamin Disraeli, then known chiefly as a writer of novels remarkable for the wild exuberance of their fancy. He denounced Peel as a political trimmer and no more of a statesman "than a boy who steals a ride behind a carriage is a great whip." Peel, in speaking for the principle of free trade, declared that England had received no guaranties from any foreign government that her example would be followed. Notwithstanding their hos- tile tariffs, however, he showed that the value of British exports had increased above pound;10,000,000 since the first reductions in the tariffs were made. On June 26 a bill for the total repeal of the corn laws was at last accepted. It 642 1846 RUSSELL SUCCEEDS PEEL passed through the Commons by a majority of 9S votes, while in the House of Peers, largely through the efforts of the Duke of Wellington, a majority of 47 was attained. The wrath of the defeated protectionists found vent on the same day when another Irish oppression bill was brought before the House. Lord Bentinek, as the mouthpiece of the pro- tectionist party, launched forth in vehement invective against Sir Robert Peel, "his forty paid janizaries, and the seventy other members who, in supporting him, blazoned forth their own shame." In conclusion Lord Bentinck called upon Par- liament to "kick the bill and the Ministry out together," exclaiming: "It is time that atonement should be made to the betrayed honor of Parliament and of England." After this speech the Ministry called for a vote of confidence. It was denied by a majority of 73 votes against the Government. On June 29 Sir Robert Peel announced his resignation. In a final speech he gave all credit for the repeal of the corn laws to Richard Cobden. A few weeks later a testimonial of pound;80,000 was placed at the disposal of Richard Cobden for his eminent services in promoting the repeal of the corn laws. On July 16 Lord Russell succeeded Peel as Prime Minister. His Cabinet included, among others, V. E. Gladstone. The Duke of Wellington was retained in supreme command of the army. Unlike other heroes, he lived to see several monuments raised to his fame. Thus the grand Wellington Monument in London, made chiefly from captured cannon, was erected at the corner of Hyde Park-. Otherwise it was a year of bridge building in England. At Newcastle a high-level bridge was erected, while at Conway and at the Mtenai Strait work was begun on two of the greatest tubular bridges of England. In Germany Schbnbein invented guncotton. About the time of the death of Friedrich Bessel, the great German astronomer, one of the greatest triumphs of abstract astro- nomical reasoning was achieved. In France Leverrier had 643 1846 ESCAPE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON worker out the position of the planet Neptune, finally deter- mining it on September 23. He communicated this to Jo- hann Gall6 at Berlin, who discovered the planet on the same night. Adams, in England, a few months previous, had made calculations to the same effect, and communicated with Challis, but owing to delays Challis did not discover the planet until after Gall6. The Royal Astronomical Society at London awarded its gold medal to each as equally deserv- ing. Within a few days after this discovery, on October 10, a satellite of Neptune was discovered by Laselle. Eugene Sue, moved by the popular agitation against the Jesuits, wrote his novel of "The Wandering Jew," first published in serials. Another attempt to kill King Louis Philippe by one Le- compte in April had been frustrated by the Guards. On July 29 Joseph Henry risked his life in the seventh attempt at the assassination of the King. Louis Bonaparte, the quon- dam King of Holland, died in his sixty-eighth year. His son, Prince Louis Napoleon, imprisoned in the fortress of Ham, succeeded in making a sensational escape, disguised in the garb of a stone-mason. Again lie fled to England. On July 8 King Christian VIII of Denmark published an open letter in which he reasserted the union of the Duch- ies of Schleswig and Holstein with Denmark regardless of the differing systems of succession prevailing in these prov- inces. The question of succession was so intricate that the Chancelleries of Europe despaired of satisfactory solution. Inasmuch as Schleswig and Holstein had been recognized as German principalities entitled to representation in the Ger- manic Confederation, the German people as such objected to their absolute incorporation with Denmark The storm raised over King Christian's letter was such as to forebode no other settlement than by arms. Pope Gregory XVI died at Rome in his eighty-first year. At the time of his death the Papal prisons were filled with 644 1846 .A Still Z ws-iu -.e ' l S A_ =I This page in the original text is blank. REVOLUTION IN GALICIA conspirators and reformers, among whom -were some of his best subjects. His death gave new hope to the followers of Gioberti, whose political dreams depicted a new Italy, regen- erated by the moral force of a reforming Papacy. AMastai Ferretti, Bishop of Imola, was elected by the College of Car- dinals, over the Austrian candidate, and on June 17 lie as- suimed the title Pius IX. The choice of this popular prelate was taken to be a tribute to Italian feeling. The first acts of Pio Nono confirmed this impression. Universal amnesty was extended to political prisoners. Hundreds of Italian patriots who had been sentenced to imprisonment for life were set free. When, in addition to this, permission was given to the citizens of Rome to enroll themselves in the new civic guard, all Rome gave itself up to popular rejoicings. The climax of national enthusiasm was reached when the new Pope took occasion to voice a formal protest against the designs of Austria upon Ferrara. For the time being the Austrian Government was too preoccupied with its troubles at home to carry its Italian pol- icy to extremes. The Polish refugees at Paris had arranged that the Polish provinces in Austria and Prussia should rise and revolt, early during this year, and extend the revolution to Russian Poland. But the Prussian Government crushed the conspiracy before a blow was struck. In Austria the attempt was more successful Late in February insurrection broke out in the free city of Cracow. General Collin occu- pied the city, but his forces proved too weak. The Polish nobles around Tarnow in Northern Galicia raised the stand- ard of revolt. Some 40,000 Polish insurgents marched on Cracow. A severe reverse was inflicted upon them by the Government troops. Now the peasants turned against the nobles, burning down the largest estates and plunging the country into anarchy. The landowners, face to face with the humiliating fact that their own tenants were their bitter- XlXth Century-Vol. 11-10 645 1846 4 MARRIAGE OF ISABELLA est foes, charged the Austrian Government with having insti- gated a communistic revolt. In a circular note to the Euro- pean courts, -Metternich protested that the outbreak of the Polish peasantry was purely spontaneous. A simuiltatieous attempt at revolution in Silesia was ruthlessly put down. Austria, Russia, and Prussia now revoked the treaty of Vienna in regard to Poland. Cracow, which had been recog- nized as an independent republic, was annexed by Austria with the consent of Russia and Prussia, and against the pro- tests of England, France, and Sweden. New measures of re- pression against Polish national aspirations were taken in Russia. The last traces of Poland were blotted frem the map of nations. In Russia during this year Otto von Kotzebue, the great Arctic explorer, died in his fifty-ninth year. Almost simultaneously with the attempted revolution of Poland, another revolt broke owlt in Portugal. On April 20 the northern provinces rose against the Ministry of Costa Cabral, the Duke of Tomar. After desultory fighting, the Duke of Plamella, one of the commanders of the constitu- tional army, gave up the struggle. He resigned his post and was banished from the country. Late in the year the Mar- quis of Saldanha, with a force of Pedro loyalists, defeated Count Bonfinn at the Torres \Tedras. In Spain the long-pending diplomatic struggle over the Spanish marriages culminated, on October 10, in the wedding of Queen Isabella to her cousin, Don Francisco d'Assisi, Duke of Cadiz. Put forward by France, this Prince was physically unfit for marriage. Simultaneously with the Queen's wedding, her sister was married to the Duke of Montpensier, the son of Louis Philippe. Thus the King of France and his iMinister, Guizot, had their way. Lord Palmerston's candidature of the Prince of Saxe- Coburg for Queen Isabella's hand was foiled. It proved a doubtful success for France. The entente cordiale between 04 6 1846 THE OREGON TREATY France and Great Britain was broken. Guizot was charged in the Chambers with sacrificing the most valuable foreign alliance for the purely dynastic ambitions of the House of Orleans. Having cut loose from England, Guizot now en- deavored through his diplomatic envoys to form a new con- cert of Europe from which England should be left out. Great Britain's diplomatic dispute with America, con- cerning the Northwestern boundary, was satisfactorily settled by the Oregon treaty, signed on June 15. The forty-ninth degree of northern latitude -was accepted as the boundary be- tween British North America and the United States. The Columbia River was retained by the United States, with free navigation conceded to English ships, while the seaport of Vancouver, the importance of which was not as yet recog- nized, fell to England. The value of this possession was soon revealed. Agents of the British Hudson Bay Company se- lected Victoria, on the Island of Vancouver, as the most promising British port in the Pacific. During this same year Dr. John Rae, by sledge journeys of more than 1,200 miles, explored the northernmost region, Boothia, wherein was determined the northern magnetic pole. On October 16 Dr. J. C. Warren of Boston, to whom Drs. Wells and Morton had communicated their discoveries with sulphuric ether, demonstrated the potency of the drug in a public test at the Boston Hospital. The news was her- alded abroad and was received by medical men throughout the world as a new revelation. A few months after the value of ether in surgery had come to be clearly recognized, a Scotch surgeon, Sir J. V. Simpson, discovered that chloro- form could be administered with analogous effect. In the United States during this period the long-expected war with Mexico was well under way. By a joint resolution of Congress, Texas had at last been admitted into the Union. General Taylor took position in Texas, opposite Matamoras 647 1846 BATTLE OF PALO ALTO on the Rio Grande, where the Mexican troops were gather- ing. Taylor presently moved his troops to Point St. Isabel. There a fleet of seven ships brought supplies. Leaving a part of his force there, he marched to a point on the Rio Grande opposite Matamoras, where he built Fort Brown, named after Major Brown, whom he left in command. The ground was mnalarious, and many soldiers died of disease. On April 12 the Mexican general, Amnpudia, moved forward with a strong force to drive Taylor beyond the Rio de la Nueces. Ampudia demanded that Taylor should withdraw within twenty-four hours, but Taylor refused to leave what he claimed to be the soil of the United States. Amp-idia hesi- tated, and General Arista was appointed in his place. Learn- ing that two vessels with supplies for the Mexicans were about to enter the Rio Grande, Taylor caused the river to be blockaded, at the "cost of war." Arista prepared to attack Fort BioWn, and cut off communication between Taylor and his supplies. Captain Thornton's command, sent out to recon- noitre, was captured on April 26. Only Thornton escaped by leaping his horse over a dense hedge. On May 1, leaving Major Brown in command at the fort, Taylor made a forced march to Point St. Isabel. The Mexicans promptly sent men across the river to the rear of Fort Brown, and opened fire, together with the guns of MIatamoras, on that work. Major Brown was first among the killed. Signal guns were fired to recall Taylor. With 2,300 men he turned back on MIay 6. Meanwhile 6,000 Mexicans had arrived and taken up a strong position at Palo Alto. On the 8th Taylor assaulted the su- perior force confronting him. Two eighteen-pounders and two light batteries made fearful havoc in the closed ranks of the Mexican infantry. The prairie grass between the two armies took fire. Both lines drew back, but soon renewed the fight. Taylor's left was met by cannonade, but the Mexi- can column was overthrown and the entire force fell back to 648 1846 KEARNEY ANNEXES NEW MEXICO Resaca de la Palma. The Americans took up their march to Fort Brown. When within three miles of the fort they encountered the Mexicans, strongly posted in Resaca de la Palma, a ravine 300 feet wide bordered with palImetto trees. Taylor deployed a portion of his force as skir- mishers, and a company of dragoons overrode the first Mexican battery. The Americans then advanced their bat- tery to the crest. A regiment charged in column, and, joined by the skirmishers, seized the enemy's artillery. After hard fighting in the chaparral, the Mexicans were put to flight. The Mexicans lost 1,000 men, the Americans conceded a loss of but 100. Refusing an armistice, Taylor crossed the river on May 18, and unfurled the Stars and Stripes on Mexican territory. Another attempted stand of the Mexicans resulted in worse defeat. Arista's retreat became a rout. Of 7,000 men he brought only 2,500 to Linares. The American troops occupied Matamoras, Reinosa, and Camargo. The three States of Tamaulipas, Cohahuila, and Nuevo Leon were an- nexed to the territory of the Rio Grande. In the interior of Mexico a revolution broke out. General Paredes was made President. In July Colonel Philip Kearney, with an American force, marched unopposed from the Arkansas River and took pos- session of Santa Fe. On August 1 he annexed the State of New Mexico as a Territory of the United States. In May Captain John C. Fremont, returning from an exploring ex.- pedition in Southern California, received a message from Secretary of State Buchanan and Senator Benton, whose daughter he had married, suggesting that he should remain in California. Fremont returned to Sacramento. There he learned that the Mexican commander was about to take the offensive. He at once assumed command of the American forces, and on June 15 captured Sonoma, Meanwhile Com- modores Sloat and Stockton took possession of the coast towns 649 18" WORTH STORMS MONTEREY as far as Los Angeles, and, on August 13, held Monterey, tho capital of California. IFr6mont set up a provisional govern- ment, placing himself at the head. In the meanwhile the United States had sent him a company of artillery, which took 200 days in making the journey around the Horn. Among its members were three future heroes of the Civil War-Lieutenants Sherman, Halleck, and Ord. The news of these events did not reach Washington until after Congress had declared war on April 26, authorized a call for 50,000 volunteers, and made an appropriation of 10,000,000. Three hundred thousand volunteers responded. Of these some 75,000 were enrolled with the regular army of 40,000. President Polk, on May 11, sent to Congress an aggressive measure, announcing that war existed by the act of Mexico. On May 23 Mexico made her formal declaration of war. General Taylor, with the army of occupation, was ordered to seize and hold points on the Rio Grande. General Taylor waited at Matamoras until September 19, when, having been joined lby General Worth, he encamped with 6,000 men within three miles of MNonterey, a strongly fortified place, ninety miles distant from AMatamoras. On the north Monterey was protected by a strong citadel, with lu- nettes on the east, and by two fortified hills on either side of the river just above the town. Worth's division planted itself above the city on the Mexican line of retreat. Garland's brigade, advancing between the citadel and the first lunette, reached the city with heavy loss. After three companies had failed to move to Garland's support, two other companies passed to the rear of the citadel and compelled the Mexicans to abandon that point. An attempt on the second lunette failed with heavy loss to the Americans. The next morning Worth endeavored to capture the fortified eminence south of the river. The Americans advanced in the face of a plung- ing artillery fire. A host of skirmishers clambered over the 650 1846 'THE NAPOLEON OF THE WEST" parapet and turned its guns on the fleeing Mexicans, and, with two supporting regiments moving along the slope, drove the Mexicans out of Fort Saldado. At daybreak the hill on the north side of the river was carried. These positions com- manded the western half of the city. On the morning of the 23d the American troops fought their way in, but were driven out again. Worth's men then pushed into the town from the west, and finding the streets swept by artillery, broke into the houses. On the next morning, September 24, Ampudia capitulated. The capture of Monterey inspired the American poet, Charles F. Hoffman, to a song modeled after the famous St. Crispin's Day speech in Shakespeare's "King Henry V": "We were not many-we who stood Before the iron sleet that day; Yet many a gallant spirit would Give half his years if he but could Have been with us at Monterey. "Our banners on those turrets wave, And there our evening bugles play: Where orange-boughs above their grave Keep green the memory of the brave Who fought and fell at Monterey." An armistice of eight weeks was agreed upon. The armistice was disapproved by the American Secretary of War, and, in November, General Scott was ordered to take command and conduct the war on his own plans. In Mexico General Paredes, who favored the restoration of monarchical rule, was opposed by General Alvarez in the south. When Paredes left the capital to go to the front, revolution broke out behind him. Don Mariano Solas, the commandant of the City of Mexico, summoned to his aid General Santa Anna. On his arrival this popular general, but recently banished from the capital, was hailed as the savior of his country and was invested with the supreme military command. Paredes went into exile. Santa Anna, after inexplicable delay, raised war funds to the amount of 651 1846 HOWE'S SEWING-IACHINE 6,000,000, and advanced toward San Luis Potosi. There the "Napoleon of the West," as they called him in Mexico, wasted more precious months. On the American side, too, little was done. On August 8 the Wilmot Proviso was passed by the House of Representa- tives. It was a proviso to the 2;000,000 bill asked by the President to arrange peace with Mexico, and it declared it to be "an express and fundamental condition to the acquisition of any territory from Mexico, that neither slavery nor in- voluntary servitude shall ever exist therein." August 10, the last day of the session of Congress, the proviso came up in the Senate, but John Davis of Massachusetts, in order to defeat action on the bill, held the floor till the session expired. Great agitation prevailed in the North over the defeat of this proviso. The Democrats lost their majority in the Twenty- ninth Congress, owing to the new tariff and the predominance of pro-slavery issues in the war. Polk had but 110 votes against 118 when the new Congress met. Now the new tariff went into effect. Howe, the American inventor, secured a patent for an improvement in sewing-machines, which em- bodied the main features of the machine used at present; to wit: a grooved needle provided with an eye near its point, a shuttle operating on the side of the cloth opposite the needle to form a lock-stitch, and an automatic feed. 652 1846 EVENTS OF 1847 Taylor Beats Santa Anna at Buena Vista-He Returns to the United States-Scott Bombards Vera Cruz-fie Larches on City of Mexico -He Captures Santa Anna's Forces and Munitions at Cerro Gordo- Ile Rests at Puebla-Doniphan Captures Chihuahua-Congress Organizes Oregon Territorial Government as Free Soil-Elgin Inaugurates Canadian Home Rule-Deaths of Sir John Franklin, the Arctic Explorer, O'Connell, the Irish Patriot, Chalmers, the Scotch Divine-New Books-Lords Reject Bill to Remove Jewish Disabilities-Palmerston Uses British Arms to Exact Reparation for Injuries Done to Portuguese and British in Greece and China- British in Boundary Dispute with Nicaragua Seize Port of San Juan del Norte-Argentina Opens La Plata to Free Navigation and English-French Fleet Raises Blockade-England, France, and Spain Decide to Interfere in Dispute Over Portuguese Throne on Behalf of Maria 1l-German Liberals Gain in Political Power-The Land- tag Assembles in Berlin-Great Fire in Copenbagen-Deaths of Mendelssohn, the Composer, and Marlhat, the Painter-Masterwork3 of French History-Deaths of Marshals Oudinot and Grouchy, and of Ex-Empress Marie Louise Austria Occupies Ferrara in Papal States-Americans Capture Garrison of General Valencia-They Storm Contreras-They Win Battle of Cherubusco-Kearney Con- quers New Mexico-Santa Anna Uses Armistice to Fortify v ity of Mexico-Scott Storms Molino del Rey and Chapultepec-He Enters the Capital-Mexicans Treacherously Attack Hospital at Puebla- Flight of Santa Anna-Rising against Bourbons in Calabria and Mlessina-Abd-el-Kader Surrenders to Lamorcibre. G ENEERAL WINFIELD SCOTT reached the har- bor of Vera Cruz in January, and assumed comn- mand of all the American forces. He took with him the well-seasoned officers and troops on the field of action, and left Taylor -with only 5,200 men, most of whom were volunteers. Santa Anna was bringing 12,000 men, eager for the fray, against Taylor. Taylor led his troops out to meet the approaching Mlexicans. He took his position at a precipitous mountain pass near the valley of Saltillo, and opposite the estate of Buena Vista. On February 22 his troops and those of Santa Anna were within sight of each other. Under a flag of truce, Santa Anna de- manded Taylor's surrender, which was refused. The _Mexi- can troops attempted to flank his position, but were driven off. The Mexican cavalry were sent to Taylor's rear to in- 653 BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA tercept the American retreat, but they were beaten back after a fierce hand-to-hand fight, led by Taylor himself. Santa Anna made his first attack in three columns. Two of these combined and turned the American left. The third, thrown against the American right, was forced to retreat, the Amer- icans having formed a new front. Again the Mexicans sought to gain Taylor's rear, but with two regiments, sup- ported by artillery and dragoons, the American commander drove them back, firing into their heavy mass. At one point in the engagement, an Indiana regiment, through a mistaken order, gave way, thereby placing the American army in peril. But the Mississippians and the Kentuckians threw themselves forwyard; the Indiana troops rallied, and the Mexicans were repulsed. General Taylor, standing near Captain Bragg's battery, saw signs of wavering in the enemy's line. "Give them a little more grape, Captain Bragg," he exclaimed-a command which was repeated all over the United States during the political campaign two years later. The Mexican column broke, and Taylor drove it up the slope of the eastern mountain. By means of a false flag of truce the endangered wing, however, escaped. Santa Anna, forming his whole force into one column, advanced. The Americans fell back, holding only the northwest corner of the plateau. When morning broke, the enemy had disap- peared. The Mexican loss was 2,000, that of the Americans 746. Colonel Jefferson Davis commanded with distinction a regiment of Mississippi riflemen. After the battle of Buena Vista, General Taylor returned to the United States, his task finished. The exploit shed such lustre on his name that he was soon regarded as the fittest candidate for the Presidency. In March Scott's army of 12,000 landed at Vera Cruz. After four days' bombardment by land and water, the city and castle of San Juan d'Ulloa surrendered. General Worth 654 1847 STORTMING OF CERRO GORDO was left in command at Vera Cruz, and Scott started on his march to the City of Mexico, 200 miles away. Santa Anna, with the flower of his army, awaited him in the strong position of Cerro Gordo, 50 miles northwest. General Twiggs turned the Mexican left flank. On the following morning, April 18, the Americans attacked in three columns. Pillow advanced against the Mexican right, lwhere three hills at an angle in the road were crowned with batteries. Shields's division, climbing by a pass, fell upon Santa Anna's right and rear. Twiggs and Worth, bearing to the right, cov- ered the El Telegrafo Hill, and attacked the height of Cerro Gordo, where Santa Anna commanded in person. Carrying this position, they turned its guns on the retreating AMexicans. Caught between the columns of Pillow, Twiggs, and Worth, Santa Anna's forces surrendered. The American troops thus gained the national road to the capital of Mexico. They had made 3,000 prisoners and taken 43 cannon, with 22,000 in silver and immense munitions of war. They lost, at Cerro Gordo, 431 killed and wounded; the Mexican loss was 2,000. Jalapa was occupied on April 19, and on the 22d the Ameri- can flag waved above the Castle of Perote, 50 miles beyond. Puebla, containing 80,000 inhabitants, was occupied without opposition on May 13. On account of the sufferings of the men in the hot climate, General Scott rested at Puebla for several months. The authority of the UTnitecd States was established on the Pacific Coast, after a final defeat of the Mexicans at San Gabriel. Colonel Doniphan of Kearney's command, having been left in charge in New Mexico, compelled the Navajo In- dians to enter into a treaty of peace, after which he set out with 1,000 Missourians to join General Wool. At Bracto a Mexican commander with a superior force sent a black flag, demanding his surrender. On refusal of this summons notice was given that no quarter should be granted. The Mlexicans 655 1 847 OREGON TERRITORY MADE FREE SOIL then advanced firing, the Americans lying down to escape the bullets. Cheering, the Mexicans ran forward, when sud- denly Doniphan's command rose and fired, killing more than 200 Mexicans. The rest turned and fled. Near the capital of Chihuahua, Doniphan, after a sharp encounter, dispersed 4,000 Mexicans. The Stars and Stripes were raised above the citadel. In May Doniphan rejoined Wool at Saltillo. Then followed a long lull in the Mexican campaign. The question concerning the power of the American Con- gress to legislate on slavery again came up in connection with a bill for the establishment of the Oregon Territorial govern- ment. In February Calhoun had introduced his new slavery resolution, declaring the Territories to be the common prop- erty of all the States, and denying the right and power of Congress to prohibit slavery in any Territory. Thus began the agitation which led to the abrogation of the Missouri Compromise. By the terms of an amendment offered for the extension of the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, slavery was to be excluded from all future territory in the West. This amendment was lost, but the bill passed with another, incorporating the anti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1787. Calhoun declared that the exclusion of slavery from any Territory was a subversion of the Union, and proclaimed "the separation of the Northern and Southern States complete." In British North America a new era of home rule began after the Earl of Elgin took his oath as Governor-General of Canada in January. The Imperial Government abandoned all control over the customs of Canada. The building of the first great Canadian railroad was begun on the main line of the Grand Trunk system. Discouraging reports from the extreme northern regions of America at last confirmed the impression that Sir John Franklin, with the other members of his expedition, had perished in the Arctic regions. Many 656 1847 DEATH OF O'CONNELL years later a record was found on the northwest shore of King William's Land, announcing that Sir John Franklin died in the spring of 1847, and that the survivors of his expedition had attempted to make their way back on the ice to the American continent. To Sir John Franklin belongs the honor of the first discovery of the northwest passage leading from Lancaster Sound to Behring Strait. On February 8 Daniel O'Connell, the great Irish Par- liamentary leader, made his last speech in the English House of Commons. Failing in health, O'Connell went to Italy. At Rome Pope Pius IX prepared a magnificent reception for him. Before he could reach the Eternal City, O'Connell died in his seventy-second year. When the body of O'Connell was buried at Glasnevin, it was followed to the grave by 50,000 mourners, among whom Orangemen and Ribbon- men walked side by side. In England O'Connell's death was regarded with a feeling akin to relief. There his persistent demands for "justice for Ireland" had come to be regarded with derision, bringing him the nickname of "Big Beggar- man." Another spirit that won religious renown in England passed away with Thomas Chalmers, the great Scotch divine. As a teacher of theology at Edinburgh he wrote no less than twenty-five volumes, the most famous of which is his "Evi- dences of the Christian Revelations," a reprint of his article on "Christianity" contributed to the "Encyclopedia Britan- nica." In other respects it was a notable year for English letters. Charles Dickens had just published his famous stories "Dombey and Son" and "The Haunted Man." The success of these novels was surpassed by that of Thackeray's "Vanity Fair." Three writers now made their appearance. Anthony Trollope brought out his "MacDermotts of Bally- coran"; Emily Bront6 published her first novel, "Wuthering Heights," while her sister, Charlotte Bront6, at the same time 657 1847 BRITAIN PROTECT[S HER CITIZENS achieved an immense success with her story of "Jane Eyre." These successes were more than rivaled by that of Jenny Lind, the great soprano singer, who made her first appearance in London during this season. The oft-mooted question of the civil disabilities of the Jews in England was brought up again by the election of Baron Rothschild as a Member of Parliament for London. He was supported not only by the Prime Minister, Lord John Russell, and most of the Whigs, blti also by three such promi- nent men of the Opposition as Bentinck, Gladstone, and Dis- raeli, himself of Jewish lineage. As heretofore, this proposed reform was accepted by the Commons only to be rejected by the Lords, now installed in their new House of Peers. It had been customary in Greek towns to celebrate Easter by burning an effigy of Judas Iscariot. This year the police of Athens were ordered to prevent this performance, and the mob, disappointed of their favorite amusement, ascribed the new orders to the influence of one Don Pacifico, a Portuguese Jew of Gibraltar. On April 4 his house was sacked. Don Pacifico made a claim against the Greek Government for compensation. Hle estimated his losses, direct and indirect, at nearly pound;3 2,000. Another claim was made at the same time by another British subject, Finlay, the historian of Greece. The Greek Government, which was all but bankrupt, was dilatory in settling these claims. A British fleet was ordered to the Piroeus. It seized all the Greek vessels belonging to the Government and to private merchants that were found within those waters. The Greek Government appealed to France and Russia as Powers joined with England in the treaty to protect the independence of Greece. France and Russia both made bitter complaint of not having been con- sulted in the first instance by the British Government, nor was their feeling softened by Lord Palmerston's peremptory reply that it was all a question between England and Greece. 658 1847 CHINESE N ON-RESISTANCE It was on this occasion that Palmerston made the famous speech harking back to the sentiment expressed in the old Roman boast, "Civ is Romanits Sum"-I am a Roman citizen. Next, new troubles arose with China. During the pre- vious year riots broke out in Canton, by reason of a supersti- tious belief that a weather-vane on top of the flagstaff over the American Consulate interfered with the spirits of the air. A Chinaman was shot during the riots. The British had to interfere on behalf of the threatened Americans. The out- raged feelings of the Chinese populace were allayed by a conciliatory declaration of Emperor Taoik-Wang, to the effect that the Christian religion could be commended as a faith for inculcating the principles of virtue. At the same time he sent a special commissioner, Ke-Ying, "amicably to regulate the commerce with foreign merchants at Canton." Trouble again broke out in March, when a small English hunting and fishing party violated the agreement confining them to the foreign concession at Canton. They were pelted with stones bv the natives. Sir John Davis denounced this incident as an international outrage, and, in disregard of the accepted treaty provisions, proclaimed "that he would exact and require from the Chinese Government that British sub- jects should be as free from molestation and insult in China as they would be in England." On April 1 all the available forces at Hong Kong were summoned to Canton. The Chi- nese, acting under orders from Ke-Ying, made no resistance. Without a shot fired, Canton, on April 3, lay at the mercy of the British guns. Ke-Ying accepted the British ultimatum that the whole city of Canton should be opened to Englishmen two years from date. A new phase in Great Britain's boundary dispute with Nicaragua was reached by a British squadron's abrupt seizure of the harbor of San Juan del Norte, Nicaragua's only sea- '659 1847 LANDTAG MEETS AT BERLIN port on the Atlantic coast. In regard to the demands made for the free navigation of the La Plata River, the Argentine Republic at last came to terms. The joint squadrons of England and France thereupon raised their blockade of Buenos Avres. At London a conference of English and French statesmen, to which Spain was likewise admitted, had come to an agreement to interfere on behalf of Queen MAaria II, in Portugal. When this wvas made known Bandiera, one of the chief partisans of Domn Pedro, announced his submis- sion. None the less, Pedro's followers persevered, and on June 26 the Junta at Oporto had to capitulate to them. In Germany, in the meanwhile, the agitation for Parlia- mentary government steadily gained ground. In Bavaria, where King Louis's open liaison with the dancer Lola Montez had turned his subjects against him, the deputies of the Land- tag abolished the crown lotteries by a unanimous vote. In Prussia King Frederick William IV at last issued his long- promised summons for a united provincial Diet. A sem- blance of representative government was established. It was at this time that Frederick William became Elector of Hesse- Cassel. The agitation for a representative government grew. On Septimber 12 the Liberals held a meeting at Orthenburg. Within a month the Constitutional party met at HIeppenheimn, in Hesse. At length a united Prussian Parliament, called the Landtag, was convoked at Berlin. The first question to claim the attention of this Parliament was that of Schleswig- Holstein. The gauntlet recently flung down to the German population of Schleswig and Holstein, by King Christian VIII of Denmark, was picked up not only by the anti-Danish Holsteiners, but by the whole German nation as well. Little Schleswig, with its 160 square miles and 400,000 inhabitants, was claimed by every German as German borderland. King Christian at this time was failing in health, and his people were greatly distracted by a destructive fire at Copenhagen, 660 1847 DEATH OF MENDELSSOHN which, amid other costly properties, destroyed invaluable rec- ords of Icelandic literature, including more than 2,000 unpublished manuscripts. An event of like international importance -was the death of Felix -Iendelssohn-Bartholdy, at the age of thirty-eight. He was the grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, and the son of the gifted Lea Solomon-Bartholdy, from whom he received his first piano lessons. At the age of ten he joined the Singing Academy of Berlin, where a composition of his, the "Nineteenth Psalm," was performed shortly after his entry. The overture to "A Midsummer Night's Dream" was written in 1826, when Mendelssohn was but seventeen years old. Two years later his first opera, "The Marriage of Camecho," was given at the Berlin Opera. In Berlin Men- delssohn became the leading figure in the propaganda for the music of Bach. Having undertaken a journey to England, at the suggestion of Moscheles, he gave a series of concerts there, after which he traveled throughout Europe. It was at this time that he wrote his "Songs Without Words," and composed the overture, "A Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage." After fill- ing a musical directorship at Dusseldorf he was summoned to conduct the orchestra of the Gewandhaus there. This proved an important turn in his career. In 1841 Frederick William IV of Prussia invited him to Berlin, where he or- ganized the famous Cathedral choir. Returning to Leipzig, he founded the musical conservatory in that city. The sudden death of his favorite sister, Fannie, gave him such a shock that he died within a few months after her. By the death of Prosper Marilhat a young artist of great promise was lost to France. It was as a painter of Oriental subjects that Marilhat won his most lasting distinction. In France the dissatisfaction with Louis Philippe's gov- ernment, as administered by Guizot, was steadily increasing. The Socialist party, led by Louis Blanc, agitated the country 661 18647 AUSTRIA OCCUPIES FERRARA for reform. An appeal to Revolutionary traditions was made by the simultaneous publication of Blanc's and Michelet's histories of the French Revolution. At the same time Lamar- tine brought out his "History of the Girondists." Napo- leonic traditions were revived bv a series of events. In Sep- tember came the death of Marshal Oudinot. Unlike Ney and others, during the hundred days he remained in retire- ment. For this he was made commander-in-chief of the Na- tional Guards under the Restoration, and passed through the campaign of Spain in 1823, when he captured Madrid. Be- fore this Marshal Grouchy had likewise expired in his eighty- first year. He it was who was held responsible by Napoleon for the final crushing defeat at Waterloo. There he failed to support his chief, when Bljicher came to the support of Wel- lington. To the end of his days Grouchy insisted that Na- poleon's orders to this effect never reached him. On October 10 Jerome Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother and the quondam King of Westphalia, was permitted to return to France after an exile of thirty-two years. Late in the year ex-Empress Marie Louise, Napoleon's second wife, died at the age of fifty-six in Austria. Never beloved like her predecessor Josephine, she lost the esteem of all Frenchmen by her fail- ure to stand by her husband after his downfall and exile to St. Helena, and by her subsequent liaison with her chamberlain, Neipperg, to whom she bore several children. Other events of lasting interest in France during this year were the open- ing of the great canal from Marseilles to Durano, the death of Due de Polignac, who helped cause the downfall of his royal master Charles X, and the publication of M6rim6e's "Carmen." This year the Italian question came uppermost again when the Austrian Government, on a new interpretation in one of the clauses in the treaty of Vienna, occupied the town of Ferrara in the ecclesiastical States. Pius IX promptly pro- 662 1847 AMERICANS STORM CONTRERAS tested against this trespass of his territories. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, openly announced his intention to take the field against Austria, should war break out. English and French warships appeared at Naples. In Sicily and southern Italy the attitude of the patriots grew threatening. Appre- bensions of a general revolution throughout Italy at length induced Metternich to agree with the neutral Powers on a compromise concerning the occupation of Ferrara. Lucca was united with Tuscany. In America, after several months of comparative inaction, the war in Mtexieo was renewed with vigor. On August 6 General Scott received reenforcements. Leaving a governor at Puebla, he marched on with 14,000 men. He met with no re- sistance at the passes of the Cordilleras. On August 10, from the top of the Rio Frio Mountains, the City of Mexico, lving in a fertile, lake-dotted basin, was in sight. The land around the city was under water, and the capital was approached by causeways across the low and marshy ground. The nu- merous rocky hills were all fortified. Scott passed around Lake Chalco to the southwest, and thence moved west, skirting the south shore. Santa Anna, intercepting the Americans, took up his headquarters at San Antonio, five miles from the city. His position was flanked on the west by broken lava, and on the east by marshy ground. The ground was as bad as could well be encountered. Santa. Anna sent orders to General Valencia, who held a fortified hill in front of the Americans, to spike his guns, destroy his stores, and retreat, but Valencia refused. Riley, occupying a hill in his rear, took his intreneblments in reverse. Valencia was cut off both north and south; 2,000 of his force were killed and wounded; 1,000, with four generals, were captured, and guns, stores, and ammunition fell into the hands of the Americans. The divisions of Pillow and Twiggs were ordered, Au- gust 19, to storm Contreras. The line between that position 663 1847 BATTLE OF CHURUBUSCO and Santa Anna's reserves was cut at the close of the day, and General Persifer F. Smith at sunrise the next morning led an assault on the Mexican camp, and in less than half an hour drove 6,000 Mexicans out of the fortification. Shortly after- ward General Worth attacked Santa Anna and routed the garrison. The Americans followed on the road to the capital to Churubusco, where Santa Anna had concentrated his whole force. Here the river was protected by levees, the head of the bridge strongly fortified, and the stone convent surrounded by a strong field-work. The attack on the bridge and the convent was desperate. Pierce and Shields had made a detour to the main road in the rear of Churubusco. They struck the Mexi- can reserves and all the troops on both sides were engaged. Worth and Pillow carried the bridge in time to save Pierce and Shields. The Mexican left gave way. A detachment crossed the river and threatened the bridge from the rear. Worth threw his whole force upon the broken line. Through ditches and over parapets they went with a rush, and the battle was won. The Americans lost 1,000 men and 76 officers. In the five distinct victories thus far gained over the Mexican army of 30,000, scarcely 10,000 Americans had been engaged; 4,000 Mexicans had been killed and wounded, and 3,000 made prisoners, and 37 pieces of artil- lery were captured. General Kearney had left Fort Leavenworth in the spring of 1847. To him fell the task of conquering New Mexico and California. On August 18 Santa F6 was captured, and all New Mexico submitted. From Santa Fe, Kearney, with 400 dragoons, set off for California. Kit Carson, whom he met on the road, informed him that Colonel Fr6mont had conquered California. On learning this Kearney sent back most of his force, and with the few remaining pushed on to the coast. 664 1847 BATTLE OF 310LINO DEL REY Scott again made overtures for peace. He had with him a Government commissioner, Trist, who had already made a vain effort to secure peace. Scott accordingly advanced to Tecubaya, within three miles of the capital, and on August 21 sent to Santa Anna a proposition for an armistice looking to negotiations for peace. The proposition was accepted, and Trist entered the capital on the 24th, where he remained until September 5. He reported that the American proposition had not onlv been rejected, but that Santa Anna had im- proved the armistice to strengthen the city's defences. Scott instantly declared the armistice at an end. Scott had now 8,500 men and 68 guns. He moved, September 7, upon Molino del Rey (King's Mill), a group of stone buildings 500 yards long, forming the western side of the enclosure surrounding the rock and castle of Chapultepec, and 1,100 yards from the castle, which is a mile and a half from the city wall. Scott's purpose was to enter the city on the south, and he considered the castle of slight importance. He supposed that the battle of MUolino del Rey would be a small affair. Worth anticipated a desperate struggle, and took up his position in the dark on the morning of the 8th. At 3 A. 2i. he opened fire with his -24- pounders, and his storming party advanced toward the point where the enemy's batteries had been, but their position had been changed, and they suddenly opened fire on the flank of his 500. After various contests the fighting became a strug- gle for the possession of the Mlolino. A desperate and deadly fight took place. The southern gate gave way and the Amneri- cans passed in. The fight was renewed with bayonet and sword, and Worth lost a large number of the flower of his forces. At last the Mexicans, all but 700, retreated to Cha- pultepec. On the left the Americans were received with a murderous fire, which was long continued. Their whole ar- tillery was then concentrated upon the Casa Mata and its 665 1847 STORMING OF CHAPULTEPEC works, which, after a desperate defence, were abandoned. Ex- cept as an outpost to Chapultepec, the position had no value. By Scott's order Worth withdrew his command, and left to the enemy the field which had been so dearly won. Of 3,500 Americans, 7i87 had fallen, including 59 officers. The Rock of Chapultepec rises 150 feet, and is crowned by the great castle. The northern side was inaccessible; the eastern and southern sides nearly so, and the southwestern and western could be scaled. A zigzag road on the southern side was swept by a battery at an angle. The crest was strongly fortified; ditches and strong walls and a redout were constructed at various points. The garrison numbered 2,000, and 13 long guns were mounted. A select party under Captain Joseph Hooker seized the Molino, and at night Pil- low threw his whole force into it. Two forces made a desper- ate assault on the intrenchments in front, united and passed the Mexicans and mounted the western slope. A party passed around the western front, which they scaled, and gained the parapet. Their comrades on the western side climbed the southern slope at the same time and joined the two. The whole castle was occupied. The Mexicans were dislodged and many prisoners were taken. The approach to the capital was difficult. It was by two roads, each along a stone aqueduct. On the Belen road the :Mexicans were gradually pressed back, however, and the Americans entered the first work, where they were confronted by the citadel commanded by Santa Anna. A terrible fire rendered further advance impossible. On the San Cosine road the enemy was pursued to a second barricade, which was carried under Lieutenant U. S. Grant and Lieutenant Gire. Worth's columns pushed on. Having passed the arches, they, began breaking their way through the walls of the houses. Howitzers were hauled to the roofs, and at last the main gate was carried. During the night a delegation proposed a capitu- 3666 1847 CAPTURE OF MEXICO CITY lation. Scott refused to grant terms. At dawn Quitman advanced to the grand palace and occupied the Plaza, and an hour later Scott took up his headquarters there. Presently some 2,000 liberated convicts and others began casting paving stones on the soldiers, and it became necessary to sweep the streets with grape and canister. By the 15th Scott was in full possession of the City of Mexico. On the morning of September 14 Generals Quitman and Worth raised the American flag over the national palace, and Scott soon afterward reined np at the Grand Plaza, where he removed his hat, and, raising his hand, proclaimed the con- quest of Mexico. Santa Anna's men afterward treacherously attacked the hospital at Puebla, where were 2,000 Americans, sick and wounded. They bravelv resisted and were presently rescued; the Mexicans being routed by General Lane. Santa Anna, again a fugitive, fled for safety to the Gulf shore. Among the officers who distinguished themselves were many afterward prominent in the Civil War; as Jefferson Davis, Grant, Lee, McClellan, Beauregard, Sherman, Hill, Jackson, Hooker, Longstreet, Buell, Johnston, Lyon, Kear- ney, Reynolds, and Ewell. Late in the year simultaneous risings against the Bourbon Government of Naples and Sicily occurred in Calabria and at Messina. In the north a conspiracy against further govern- ment by Austria assumed the proportions of a national move- ment. In France the popular clamor for reforms grew to threatening proportions. Late in December the Chambers met, but promised no reforms. Defeated in this, the opposi- tion determined to voice its protests at a political banquet in Paris similar to those that had been held at Strasburg, Lille, Lyons, Rouen, and other cities. The Government for- bade the banquet, and it was postponed until the next year. Popular passions for the moment were appeased by Abd-el- Kader's final surrender to General Lamorciere in Algeria. 667 1947 EVENTS OF 1848 People of Palermo Revolt and Establish Provisional Government-King of Naples Proclaims Constitution-milanese Attack Austrian Sol- diers-Tuscans Extort a Constitution-Venetians Proclaim Repub- lic-Papal Troops Put Down Revolts at Rome-Federation of Swiss Cantons-Mitchell and Other Irish Nationalists Convicted of Trea- son-Revolt of the Punjab-Expeditions for Relief of Franklin- Death of Stephenson, the Inventor-Treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo Ends Mexican War-Gold Discovered in California-Deaths of John Quincy Adams, Donizetti, and Chateaubriand-National Guards Aid Parisian Populace in Demonstration against Ministry-Fall of Both Ministry and Monarchy-Provisional Government Formed-Repub- lic Proclaimed-Flight of Louis Philippe-Failure of Third Chartist Petition-Radetzky Concentrates Austrian Forces at Verona-Mag- yar Diet Demands Constitution-Provincial Diet Demands Dismissal of Metternich and Grant of Constitution-Emperor Ferdinand Ac- quiesces-Popular Demonstrations Throughout Germany-Frederick William Convokes Prussian Assembly-Berlin Populace Crowd to Cheer Him-Interference of Troops Causes Fatal Panic-King Pro- claims His Desire for a Free, United Germany-People of Schleswig- Holstein Rise against Danish Annexation-They are Defeated at Bau-Prussians Come to Their Aid-Revolts Suppressed in Polish and Balkan Provinces-Republicans Outvoted in Preliminary Ger- man Parliament at Frankfort-Provisional Government Declared in Lake District of Baden-Revolutionists are Defeated at Freiburg -Italy, Rebuffed by England, France, and Switzerland, Determines to Go it Alone-She Refuses Austria's Offer of Lombardy with Its Debts-The King of Naples Resumes His Autocracy-He Recalls Neapolitan Troops from the Front-Pius IX in His "Allocution" Denies Intention of Warring against Austria-Neapolitan and Papal Generals Adhere to Patriot Cause Garibaldi Joins Patriot Army- Sardinians Cross the Mincio and Take Peschiera-Radetzky Defeats Tuscans at Cortatone-He Occupies Venetia and Captures Papal Army at Vicenza-He Defeats Charles Albert at Custozza and Takes Milan-Armistice of Vigevano-Venice Establishes Republic under Manin-Raffet's War Sketches-Jellacic, Ban of Croatia Expels Magyar Officials Serbs Proclaim Home Rule-Viennese gob Com- pels Resignation of Minister of Foreign Affairs and Withdrawal of Troops from City-Imperial Family Flees to Innsbruck-Magyars Bid against Croats and Serbs for Imperial Favor-Civil War in Lower Hungary-German Parliament at Frankfort-Archduke John of Austria Elected Imperial Vicegerent-Armistice of Malm8 Be- tween Prussia and Denmark against Will of Frankfort Parliament Shows Prussia's Strength and Germany's Weakness-South Ger- mans Rise in Revolution-French Government Fails as Employ- ment Bureau-Moderates Triumph at Election-Radicals Form Provisional Government, which is Suppressed by National Guard- Government Orders Workmen in National Shops to Enlist in Army- Workmen of Paris Organize against Government-Cavaignac, Min- ister of War. Crushes the Insurrection-Louis Napoleon is Elected to the Assembly-On Adoption of New Constitution He is Elected President of the Republic-Death of Chopin-Sicilians Depose King Ferdinand and Elect Son of Charles Albert in His Place-Austria Restores Dukedoms in Northern Italy-Her Occupancy of Papal States Leads to Insurrection-Ferdinand Bombards Messina-Armis- tice-Revolt in Rome Begins with Assassination of Premier-Pius IX Flees to Naples-Subservience of German Parliament to Prussia Causes Riot at Frankfort-Mob Lynches Two Conservative Leaders 668 REVOLTS IN SICILY AND NAPLES of Parliament-Prussian Soldiers Arrive and Put City under Mar- tial Law-South German Revolutionists under Blind and Struve are Beaten at Staufen-Democrats Rule in Prussian Parliament-They Force a Cabinet on the King. which He Dismisses for One of His Own-King Prorogues Parliament to Brandenl rg-Majority Re- fuses to Go and Advises People Not to Pay Taxes King Dissolves Parliament-He Proclaims New Constitution-Pan-Slavic Congress at Prague Ends in City Riot-Windischgrittz Storms Prague--Jel- lacic, with Emperor's Secret Approval. Marches His Croats on Pesth-Emperor Appoints Lamberg Commander of Both Hungarian and Croatian Forces-Mob at Pesth Lynches Lamberg-Emperor Dissolves Hungarian Parliament and Appoints Jellacic Commander of Hungarian Forces-Magyar Diet Defies the Manifesto-Hnn- garians Check Jellacic's Advance-Pro-Magyar Mob Rises in Vienna -Emperor Flees to Olmfitz-Imperial Forces Concentrate on Vi- enna under Windischgrltz-Jellacic Beats Relieving Force of Hun- garians-Windischgratz Enters Vienna-Imperialist Ministry is Formed and Imperial Parliament Assembled-Ferdinand Abdicates -Francis Joseph, His Nephew, Succeeds Him-Hungarian Diet Re- fuses to Acknowledge New Sovereign-Roumanians Rise against Magyar Rule They Combine with Jell acic's Croatians and Windisch- gratz's Austrians and Move on Hungary-Magyars Abandon Pesth, to Take Stand in Northern Mountains. HE long seething discontent of the lower classes in Italy had reached its culmination. On January 12 the people of Palermo rose in revolt. The Gov- ernment troops were driven from the city. Palermo was bombarded and fighting continued for a full fortnight In the end the insurgents were victorious, and a provisional gov- ernment was established. Other towns in Sicily followed snit. On January 2 7 revolutionary riots broke out in Naples. Threatened by revolution throughout his dominions, King Ferdinand II of Naples and Sicily, like his grandfather, made haste to proclaim a popular constitution. A Liberal Ministry was called in on January 29. The city of Messina was still in full insurrection when the standard of revolt wvas raised in northern Italy. In order to deprive the Austrian Government of one of its chief financial supports, the patri- otic societies of Italy fornied a resolution to abstain from the use of tobacco, on which the Government had a monopoly. On the following Sunday Austrian officers, smoking in the streets of Milan, were attacked by the populace. The troops had to be called to arms, and blood was shed on both sides. XIXth Centuty-Vol. II-11 669 1848 REVOLUTION SPREADS OVER EUROPE Similar outbreaks followed in Padua and elsewhere. Ra- detzky, the Austrian commander-in-chief, proclaimed martial law. On February 15 the people rose in Tuscany, and com- pelled their grandduke to proclaim a constitution. In March the insurrectionary movement spread from Lombardy to Piedmont. The Republic of Venice was proclaimed. The 1King of Sardinia declared himself in sympathy with the lib- eration of Venice from Austrian rule. For a while Pius IX showed similar leanings. On March 15 the Nationalists of Rome declared against the Pope. The National Guards joined in the movement. The Papal troops had to be called out to put down the revolt by force of arms. The hordes of Roman lazzaroni or beggars profited by the confusion to com- mit hideous crimes. The Pope created a high council and Chamber of Deputies with privileges of limited legislation, the Pope retaining his full veto power on whatever they might decree. But on April 29, after the Jesuits had been expelled from Sardinia, the Pope turned his back on these reforms, and returned to the conservative policy of his immne- diate predecessors. His definite refusal to declare against Austria provoked another insurrection at Rome. This time the revolt grew to such proportions that the city had to be subjected to bombardment by artillery. In the meanwhile a revolution of far more serious propor- tions had broken out at Paris. Successful from the start, the contagion of its example had spread from France to most of the various principalities of Germany, to Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, and thence to almost every quarter in Europe. In the countries untouched by revolution internal prog- ress kept pace with the continued spread of civilization. In Switzerland the expulsion of the Jesuits resulted in the at- tempted secession of the seven Catholic cantons. This was frustrated by General Dufour's prompt occupation of Frei- burg and Luzerne. The so-called Sonderbund of the seced- 6(lo 1848 INSURRECTION IN IRELAND 18 ing cantons was dissolved. In place of the former union of sovereign cantons, the Swiss Republic was now reconstituted after the model of the United States of North America, as a union of States with a central federal government at Berne. The Swiss army, postal system, and finances were put under federal control and a national coinage was established. The separate interest of the cantons found representation in the Stinderath, while the Swiss people at large were represented in the Nationalrath, the members of which were elected from districts apportioned among the cantons according to equal numbers of population. In England the influence of contemporaneous events in Europe was strong enough to frighten Parliament into pass- ing an act which made the utterance of seditious speeches a felony. A popular insurrection in Tipperary, Ireland, was made the pretext for once more suspending the habeas corpus act in Ireland. By the end of July the revolt was put down. Its leaders, John Mitchell, O'Brien, and others, were appre- hended and tried in court for high treason. They were sen- tenced to death, but the Queen mitigated their sentences to transportation. The young Queen and her royal consort vis- ited Dublin in midsummer, and were received with wild demonstrations of apparently universal loyalty. A constitu- tion on home rule principles was proclaimed in West Aus- tralia. In South Africa Sir Harry Smith, the Governor of Cape Colony, after his successful termination of a fourth war with the Iaffirs, proclaimed the authority of Great Britain over the Orange River territory. The Boer settlers there under the leadership of Pretorius found themselves unable to maintain their independence. The adjoining lands of the Basutos wvere declared under British protectorate. Early in the year Lord Dalhousie had relieved Lord Har- dinge as Governor-General of India. Vp to that time the British occupation of the Punjab had continued without ma- 671 1 848 REVOLT OF THE PUN-JAB terial change. Now a new fiscal system was to be introduced there to settle up the arrears of Viceroy iAlulraj of Multan. In April Vance Agnew, a British commissioner, with a mili- tary escort of 300 men, arrived at Multan to occupy the citadel as surety for these arrears. The British officers were admitted to the city, but as they emerged from the citadel they were attacked, and all the Englishmen were massacred. Mulraj called upon the Sikhs to rise against the English. A force of 7,000 British troops were sent against Multan. When they reached the city all the native troops turned against them. The whole of the Punjab revolted, and a holy war was proclaimed against England. The Sikh garrisons of Peshawar joined in the revolt, which was quickly taken up by the Afghans. George Lawrence, the British Resident there, was carried off as a prisoner. In the fort of Attock Captain Herbert held out for a while, but in the end was forced to succumb. The first general engagement between Lord Gough and Sagr Singh at Ramluggar, late in the year, resulted in a drawn battle. During this time more expeditions had been sent out in search of Sir John Franklin. The first of these was com- manded by Sir James Ross, the famous Antarctic explorer. The most noteworthy perhaps was Dr. John Rae's overland journey through the northwestern territory of America from the Mackenzie to the Copper Mine River. This opened up a vast tract of country to adventurous Canadians. The nec- rology of the year in England included the greatest of women astronomers, Caroline Herschel, sister of the famous dis- coverer of Uranus; the two authors, Isaac d'Israeli, the father of Lord Beaconsfield, and Captain Frederick Marryat, the romancer of the sea, and George Stephenson, the inventor of the first practicable locomotive. Another invention stand- ing to the credit of Stephenson was one of the earliest safety lamps, but a committee which investigated the subject ac- 672 1848 TREATY OF GUADALOUPE HIDALGO corded to Sir Humphry Davy the priority of this invention. During this year Sir Austin Henry Layard published the results of his original researches of Nineveh and its remains. M acaulay printed the first two volumes of his "History of England," while Matthew Arnold brought out his "Strayed Reveler" and other poems. On the part of the United States the war with Mexico was brought to a close. The President of the Mexican Con- gress assumed provisional authority, and, on February 2, that body at Guadaloupe Hidalgo concluded peace with the United States. With slight amendments the treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on March 10, and by the Mexi- can Congress at Quer6taro on May 30. President Polk, on July 4 following, finally proclaimed peace. The Ameri- cans under the terms of the treaty evacuated Mexico within three months, paid Mexico 3,000,000 immediately, and 12,- 000,000 in three annual instalments, and assumed debts of 3,500,000 due from Mexico to American citizens. These payments were made in consideration of new accessions of territory which gave to the United States not only Texas, but Arizona, New Mexico, and California. The war had cost the United States approximately 25,000,000 and 25,000 men. While these negotiations were under way, Colonel Sutter had begun the erection of a mill at Colonna on the American branch of the Sacramento River. In January one Marshall, who was engaged in digging a raceway for the mill for Colonel Sutter, found a metal which he had not seen before, and, on testing it in the fire, found that it was gold. Then the gold seekers poured into California. They ar- rived in multitudes from all parts of America and other coun- tries-thousands tracking across the plains and mountains with ox-teams and on foot, and other thousands crossing the Isthmus with scarcely less difficulty, while around the Horn 673 1848 DEATH OF JOHN QUINCY ADA1MS a steady procession of ships passed up the coast of South America and Mexico to the new El Dorado. In two years the population of California increased 100,000, and still the hordes of gold seekers came. On February 21 John Quincy Adams was stricken with apoplexy in his seat in the House. As he was carried to the Speaker's room and was laid on a lounge, he feebly mur- mured: "This is the last of earth. I am content." He died on February 23. John Quincy Adams's long career of public service is unique in American history. At the age of eleven he accom- panied his father on a diplomatic mission to Europe, and early acquired a knowledge of French and German. When barely fourteen he went to St. Petersburg as private secretary to the American Minister, Dana. At sixteen Adams served as one of the secretaries of the American Plenipotentiaries during the negotiations resulting in the treaty of peace and independence of 1783. At the age of twenty-seven he was appointed Minister to Holland by President Washington, and afterward was Minister to Berlin and Commissioner to Swe- den. After serving for some years in the United States Senate he was sent, in 1809, as Minister to Russia, where he remained till 1815. Then he was transferred to London, where he resided till 1817, when he became Secretary of State. His subsequent career has already been noted in this work. During this year James Russell Lowell published his "Biglow Papers," a humorous satire on the Mexican War in Yankee dialect; the "'Indian Summer Reverie," and "A Fable for Critics." On April 8 Gaetano Donizetti-who together with Ros- sini and Bellini formed the brilliant triumvirate of Italian composers in the first half of the nineteenth century-died of paralysis from overwork in his native town of Bergamo. 674 1848 DEATH OF CHATEAUBRIAND8 Donizetti composed his first operas in the style of Rossini. In 1830, stung by the success of Bellini, he wrote "Anna Bolena," which inaugurated his second more original period, which incilided "Lucrezia Borgia" and the i ininensely popu- lar "Lucia di Lamrnermoor." Besides more than threescore of operas, Donizetti composed seven masses, twelve string quartets, and a host of songs, cantatas, and vespers, as wvell as pianoforte music. Another figure of world-wide renown was lost by the death of the French poet Franqois Ren6 de Cliateaubriand. Of noble birth, lie received a commission in the royal army shortly before the outbreak of the French Revolution. Dis- satisfied with the revolutionary turn of affairs, he resigned his commission in 1790, and journeved to North America. There he traveled extensively, seeking poetic inspiration from the wilderness and the primitive customs of the Indians. After the downfall of King Louis XVI, Chateaubriand re- turned to France and joined the army of emigres under Prince Cond6. At the siege of Thionville he was wounded and went to England. By the time Chateaubriand recovered be found himself in abject poverty, and had to spend his days in bed for lack of fuel. In England he wrote his "Essay upon Revolutions," in which he compared the recent rising in France to that of the English Commonwealth. On the fall of the Directorate he returned to France, where, at the open- ing of the nineteenth century, he published "Atala," a tragic story of an Indian virgin who died rather than violate her vow of chastity. In 1802 appeared "Ren6," a subjective story treating of the hapless love of a sister for her brother. These poems fell in with the prevailing maladie du monde, already cultivated by Goethe's "Sorrows of Werther," and became prodigiously popular. During 1802 Chateaubriand also brought out his famous "Genius of Christianity, or the Beau- ties of the Christian Religion," which achieved an immense 675 1848 1848 FRENCH REFORM BANQUET INTERDICTED success. It won the approbation of Napoleon, who ap- pointed Chateaubriand to diplomatic posts at Rome and Vallis. The execution of the Due d'Enghien was so horri- fying to Clhateaubriand that he forthwith resigned his ap- pointments. After extensive travels in the Orient, Cha- teaubriand went to Spain, where he wrote his story of "The Martyrs, or the Triumph of the Christian Religion," brought out in Paris in 1809. In 1810 Chateaubriand published the famous political pamphlet "Monarchy under a Charter," which was made the basis of the subsequent royal constitu- tion of France. On the restoration of the Bourbons he wrote another political pamphlet, directed against Bona- parte, which sent him into exile together with Louis XVIII during the Hundred Days. On the return of Louis XVIII he was made a member of State, a peer of France, and member of the French Academy. In 1820 he was sent as Ambassador to Berlin and then to London, from where he was recalled into the Cabinet. His ministerial career has already been noted in this work. The reform banquet, that had repeatedly been postponed during 1847 on account of Guizot's prohibition, had been set for Washington's Birthday, 1848. The Government an- nounced that the meeting, if held, would be dispersed by force. Although the deputies of the opposition agreed to abstain from the proposed manifestation, fifty-two of them laid before the Chambers a bill of impeachment against the Ministry. There was a noisy demonstration in the streets of Paris, to suppress which required the calling out of the National Guard. The mob had resolved to put the threat of the Government to test. On the morning of the eventful 22d of February the Parisian populace congregated by thousands near the Made- leine and the Rue Royale, shouting "Vive la reforme; d bas les ministres!" and singing the "Marseillaise." No troops 676 LOUIS PHILIPPE ABDICATES made their appearance. On the next day, however, the National Guards of Paris were called out. But their cry, as they marched through the different quarters of the city, was "Vive la raforme!" Emboldened by this, the members of the secret societies flew to arms; and in the skirmishes which followed between the populace and the regular troops, the National Guard everywhere interfered in favor of the former, reducing the latter to inaction. The insurrection thus triumphed almost without actual strife. Next day Guizot tendered his resignation, which was promptly accepted, and published as an act of satisfaction on the part of the King to the demands of the people. Count Mol6 was charged with the formation of a new Ministry. It was now generally expected that tranquillity would be at once restored. But late at night the detachment of troops posted at -;he Office of Foreign Affairs wVas attacked by a band of rioters. The commanding officer ordered them to fire, and several persons in the crowd were shot down. Their dead bodies were paraded through the city. This spectacle raised the indignation of the multitude to the highest pitch. Fresh barricades were erected in all the most populous quarters of the city, and the soldiers, stupefied and panic-stricken, renounced all further opposition to the revolt. The King now named Marshal Bugeaud to the supreme com- mand of the whole military force at Paris. MoI6 having declined the task of constructing a Ministry, the King sum- moned Thiers to the head of affairs. This statesman, in conjunction with Odillon-Barrot, immediately issued a proc- lamation announcing their appointment as Ministers, and stating that orders had been given to the troops to withdraw and abandon the contest. This gave the last blow to the monarchy of Louis Philippe. Marshal Bugeaud resigned his command. The soldiers quitted their ranks, giving up arms and ammunition to the insurgents. The National Guard 677 1848 1848 PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT IS FORMED openly joined the masses of the people and marched with them upon the Tuileries. The catastrophe was now inevi- table. Louis Philippe, feeling that all was lost, signed an act of abdication in favor of his grandson, the Comte de Paris, and withdrew to St. Cloud. An attempt was made to obtain the recognition of the Duchess of Orleans as Regent, and thus to preserve the throne to the heir of Louis Philippe, according to the express terms of his abdication. The Duchess went to the Cham- ber of Deputies, holding by the hand her sons, the Comte de Paris and the Duc de Chartres. They took their seats in front of the tribune. More than one member spoke earnestly in favor of the regency. In the midst of the de- bate the Chamber was invaded by a tumultuous throng of armed men. One of them was Arnold B1cklin, the Swiss artist, who subsequently rose to highest rank among the painters of the nineteenth century. Marie, a violent Re- publican, ascending the tribune, announced that the first duty of the Legislature was to appoint a strong provisional government capable of reestablishing public confidence and order. Cremieux, Ledru-Rollin, and Lamartine in turn insisted on a new government and constitution to be sane- tioned by the sovereign people. The proposition was hailed with tumultuous acclamations. The Duchess of Orleans and her children retired precipitately. The Republicans remained masters of the field. A pro- visional government was forthwith nominated. It included the poet Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, Garnier-Pages, and Arago, the astronomer. Louis Blanc, the great socialistic writer, and one Albert, a locksmith, were added to the provisional government. This council met behind bolted doors. Every half-hour Lamartine had to confront some new crowd of riot- ers preferring fresh claims. The confusion lasted several days. Throughout this time more barricades were thrown 678 FLIGHT OF LOUIS PHILIPPE up, until the Government gained a breathing space by a prom- ise to distribute 1,000,000 francs among the laboring men. Louis Blanc and Ledru-Rollin signed another decree whereby, they pledged the Government to furnish every Frenchman with work. On February 27 the Republic was formally proclaimed from the Place de la Bastile. The barricades were leveled and the crowds that had surged through the streets of Paris gradually dispersed. Throughout France the Republic was accepted without serious opposition. For a while it was feared that Louis Philippe's sons in 'Algiers, the Duke d'Aumale and Prince de Joinville, who commanded the French army and navy, comprising more than 100,000 men, might make a stroke on their father's behalf. This hope of the Royalists was doomed to disap- pointment. Both princes resigned their command to be suc- ceeded bv General Cavaignac, who took charge of the forces in the name of the French Republic. Louis Philippe and the Queen with a few attendants fled to Honfleur, where they lay for nearly a week in concealment. At length the packet steamer "Express" was placed at their disposal by the Brit- ish Government. On March 4 Louis Philippe, having as- sumed the name of William Smith, landed at Newhaven in Sussex. With his Queen he proceeded to Claremont, a coun- try-seat belonging to his son-in-law, King Leopold of Bel- gium. The Duke of Montpensier with the Duchess of Ne- mours fled to Belgium, as did the Duchess of Orleans. The French Revolution gave quickening impulse to the Chartist movement in England. Feargus O'Connor had been returned at the General Election of 1847 as Member for Not- tingham. He threw himself into a renewal of the agitation with all the strength and vigor of a madman. A National Convention was summoned, and it was determined that an- other monster petition should be carried to the House of Commons, to be followed by a procession of half a million 679 1848 THE END OF CHARTISM persons. Started by wild threats of Chartist orators, the idea spread that a revolution might break out in London on the presentation of the petition. On April 10 a great demonstra- tion was to be held on Kensington Common. In anticipation, special constables to the number of 17 0,000 were sworn in to keep the peace; troops were quartered in the houses of the main thoroughfares; public buildings were equipped with arms; the Admiralty was garrisoned by a body of marines, and the Tower guans were mounted. The military arrange- ments were placed in the hands of the Duke of Wellington. On the eventful morning traffic was suspended along the streets for fear that the vehicles should be employed, as in France, in the construction of barricades, and a proclama- tion was issued warning people against collecting for dis- orderly purposes. Owing to these thorough precautions the threatened mass meeting collapsed. The procession was never held. The whole affair was covered with ridicule. The '"monster petition" was found to contain not 6,000,000 sig- natures as was alleged, but only 1,975,469, and many of these proved to be fictitious. In the words of a contemporary, "Chartism had received its death-blow. O'Brien, Vincent, and others endeavored to revive it, but in vain. Its members fell off in disappointment and allied themselves with reformers of greater moderation, and Feargus O'Connor, who for ten years had madly spent his force and energy in carrying forward the movement, gave it up in despair. Everything he had touched had proved a failure. From being an object of terror, Chartisin had be- come an object of ridicule. O'Connor took the matter so much to heart that he soon became an inmate of a lunatic asylum, and never recovered his reason." All Italy now, from the southern shores of Sicily to the Alps, was in a blaze of insurrection. Venice, Piedmont, and Lombardy were in arms. Charles Albert, the King of Sar- 680 1848 OUTBREAK OF MAGYAR PATRIOTISM 1 dinia, put himself at the head of the movement in northern Italy. From all parts of Italy volunteers crowded to his banners. In defiance of the Pope's orders a conipuct body of these volunteers marched from Rome. Radletzkv, the Aus- trian commander, a veteran of all the Austriati wars since the outbreak of the French Revolution, had long prepared for this struggle by formidable fortifications at Verona. When Milan revolted and the Austrian Vice-Governor, O'Donnell, was captured, Radetzky evacuated the city at the approach of Charles Albert's army from Piedmiont. His outlying gar- rison was cut off by the Italians. Preferring the loss of Ililan to a possible annihilation of the army, Radetzky fell back upon Verona. On the banks of the Adige, about twenty- five miles east of the Mincio, he rapidly concentrated all available forces, while the Italians threw up intrenchments on the Mincio. There, with the armies of Piedmont and Lombardy in front of him and the revolutionary forces of Venice behind him, Radetzky stubbornly held his ground. The Austrian Empire itself, by this time, was shaken to its foundation. When the news of the February Revolution in Paris reached Austria the Magyar Diet was in session in Hungary. The success of the revolutionists in France in- flamed the Liberal leaders in Hungary. Casting aside all reserve, Kossuth declared in the Diet: "The future of Hun- gary can never be secured while Austria maintains a system of government in direct antagonism to every constitutional principle. Our task is to found a happier future on the brotherhood of all the races in Austria. For a union en- forced by bayonets and police spies let us substitute the en- during bond of a free constitution !" On Mlarch 3 the Hun- garian Lower house triumphantly passed a resolution to that effect. The cry for a liberal constitution was instantly taken up in the other dominions of Austria. It so happened that the Provincial Estates of Lower Austria were to imeet about 681 1848 DOWNFALL OF MrTrTERNICEa this time. It was planned that an address embodying de- mands similar to those of Hungary should be forwarded to the Emperor by this assembly. The political agitation in Vienna became feverish. The students indulged in noisy demonstrations. Rumors of the impending repudiation of the paper currency and of State bankruptcy made matters worse. A sharp decline in stocks showed Metternich that a public catastrophe was near at hand. On March 13 the Provtinicial Diet met. Dense crowds surged about the Diet Hall. The students marched around in procession. Street orators harangued the crowds. The tumult was at its height when a slip of paper was let down from one of the windows of the hall, stating that the Diet was inclining to half measures. An announcement to this effect was received with a roar of fury. The mob overran the guards and burst into the Diet Hall. All debate was stopped, and the leading members of the Estates were forced to head a deputation to the Emperor's palace to exact a hear- ing. All the approaches to the palace were choked with people. Street fighting had already begun. Detachments of soldiers were hurried to the palace and to the Diet Hall. From the roof and windows of the Diet Hall missiles were hurled upon the soldiery. The interior of the hall was de- molished. The soldiers now fired a volley and cleared the hall with their bayonets. Blood flowed freely, and many were killed. The sound of the shots was received by the crowds around the palace with howls of rage. The whole city was in an uproar. Barricades were thrown up and the gunsmith shops were sacked. At the palace, where the Em- peror himself remained invisible, Metternich and his assem- bled Council received the deputation in state. The Council urged the aged Prime Minister to grant the demanded con- cession. At length he withdrew into an adjoining chamber to draft an order annulling the censorship of the press. 682 1848 TRIUMPH OF VIENNA PATRIOTS While he was thus engaged the crv was raised: "Dowvn with Metternich !" The deputies in the Council Chamber peremp- torily demanded his dismissal. When the old statesman re- turned he found himself abandoned even by his colleagues. MAetternich realized that the end had come. He made a brief farewell speech, marked by all the dignity and self-possession of his greatest days, and left the Council Chamber to announce his resignation to the Emperor. The news of Metternich's downfall was received with deafening cheers. His personality was so closely identified with all that was most hateful in Austrian politics that the mere announcement of his resignation sufficed to quell the popular tumult. On the night of March 14 Metternich con- trived to escape from Vienna unobserved, and fled across the frontier. On the same day a National Guard was established in Vienna, and was supplied with arms taken from the Gov- ernment arsenal. The Viennese outbreak gave irresistible force to the national movement in Hungary. Now the Chamber of Magnates, which had hitherto opposed the de- mands of the Lower House, adopted the same by a unanimous vote. On March 15 a deputation was despatched to Vienna to demand from the Emperor not only a liberal constitution, but a separate Ministry, absolute freedom of the press, trial by jury, equality of religion, and a free public-school system. The Hungarians, with Kossuth in the lead, were received in triumph in Vienna. They paraded through the streets, and were greeted by Emperor Ferdinand in person. He con- sented to everything and issued an imperial rescript, promis- ing a liberal constitution to the rest of Austria as well. The light-hearted Viennese indulged in indescribable jubilations. On March 18 the Emperor drove through the city. Some- body put a revolutionary banner into his hands. The black, red, and gold ensign of united Germany was hoisted over the tower of St. Stephen. In an intoxication of joy the people 683 1848 THE BERLIN PANIC took the horses from the imperial carriage and drew it tri- umphantly through the streets. The regular troops around the palace were superseded by the new National Guards. By this time the same storm of revolution was sweeping over Germany. Popular demonstrations occurred at Mann- heim, Cassel, Breslau, Koenigsberg and along the Rhine re- gion in Cologne, Diisseldorf, and Aix-la-Chapelle. A popu- lar convention at Heidelberg, on March 5, had resolved upon a national assembly to be held at Frankfort-on-the-Main by the end of March. Elections for this assembly were being held throughout Germany. The long-desired union of Ger- many was at last to be accomplished. (in March 14 King Frederick William of Prussia convoked the Prussian Assem- bly for April 27, to deliberate upon Prussia's part in the proposed German union. Then came the news of the events in Vienna. Under the stress of alarming bulletins from Vienna, the King issued a rescript on March 18, in which he not only convoked the Prussian Assembly for the earlier date of April 2, but himself proposed such reforms as con- stitutional government, liberty of speech, liberty of the press, and the reconstitution of the Germanic Federation as a na- tional union of States-a realization in brief of all the most ardent ideals of the German Liberals. Now the popular agitators proposed a monster demonstration to thank the King for his concessions. Shortly after noon, on March 18, the processions converged upon the palace. Immense crowds filled the streets. The appearance of the King upon the bal- cony was greeted with cheers. King Frederick William tried to speak, blat could not make himself heard. The troops set out to clear the palace grounds. In the confusion two shots were fired. A panic ensued. "We are betrayed," cried the leaders, and called the people to arms. The troops of the garrison charged into the rioters. Barricades were thrown up, and here and there church bells rang the tocsin. 684 1848 'ME PLEDGE OF FREDERICK WILLIAM 18 From three in the afternoon until early the next morning, fighting continued in the streets. The entire garrison of Berlin was called out, and with the help of the bright moon- light succeeded in clearing one street after another. Prince William, the future German Emperor, gained unenviable notoriety by his zeal. At two in the morning the King gave orders to stop firing. He issued a proclamation: "To my dear people of Berlin," the mild tone of which only betrayed his weakness. On the following day all the troops were with- drawn and ordered out of the city. Prince William likewise left Berlin in deep chagrin and departed for England. His palace had to be protected from the fury of the people by pla- cards pronouncing it the property of the nation. Once more the rioters appeared before the royal palace with the bodies of some of their slain. The King convoked a new Ministry and consented to substitute armed citizens and students for his royal guards. A general amnesty was proclaimed. On March 21 the King agreed to adopt "the sacred colors of the German Empire" for those of Prussia. After the man- ner of the weak Emperor of Austria, he rode through the streets of Berlin wearing a tricolor sash. Not satisfied with this, the revolutionists, on March 22, paraded before the pal- ace with the open biers of 187 men that had been killed dur- ing the riots. Standing on his balcony with bared head, King Frederick William reviewed the ghastly procession. In a manifesto published at the close of the day he declared: "Germany is in ferment within and exposed from without to danger from more than one side. Deliverance from this danger can come only from the most intimate union of the German princes and people under a single leadership. I take this leadership upon me for the hour of peril. I have to-day assumed the old German colors, and placed myself and my people under the venerable banner of the German Empire. Prussia is henceforth merged into Germany." Thus Fred- 685 1848 DANISH VICrORY AT BAU erick William, by word and acts, which he afterward de- scribed as a comedy, directly encouraged the imperial aspirations of liberal Germany. The passage of his address in which he spoke of external dangers threatening Germany came true sooner than was expected. King Christian VIII of Denmark had died early in the year. The fear of revolu- tion at Copenhagen drove his son Frederick VII, the last of the Oldenburg line, to prick the war bubble blown by his father. On March 22 lie called the leaders of the Eider- Dane party-the party which regarded the Eider as the boundarv of the Danish dominions, thus converting Schles- wig into a Danish province-to take the reins of govern- ment. The people of Schleswig and Holstein protested. The King was checkmated at Kiel by the appointment of a provisional government. The troops joined the people, and the insurrection spread over the whole province. The strug- gle then began. Volunteers from all parts of Germany rushed to the northern frontier. The German Bundestag ad- mitted a representative of the threatened Duchies, and en- trusted Prussia with their defence. An attempt was made to organize a German fleet. General Wrangel was placed in command of the Prussian forces despatched toward Denmark. Before he could arrive, the untrained volunteer army of Schleswig-Holsteiners suffered defeat at Ban. A corps of students from the Universitv of Kiel was all but annihilated. An attempted rising of the Poles in the Prussian province of Posen and at Cracow was quickly suppressed. When the spirit of revolt spread to Moldavia and Wallachia, Em- peror Nicholas without further ado despatched a Russian army corps across the Pruth. The Sultan of Turkey was prevailed upon to do the same. Russian and Turkish troops occupied Jassy and Bucharest during the summer. The German preliminary Parliament of 500 delegates had met at Frankfort in April. It lasted but five days. The 686 1848 REVOLUTION IN BADEN Republicans found themselves outnumbered when they sub- mitted their scheme for a national constitution. Repulsed in this, they proposed that the assembly should continue in ses- sion until the real National Parliament should meet, thus extending their function beyond the limits of a mere constit- uent assembly. Outvoted in this, the leaders of the extreme Republicans resorted to armed revolt. Assisted by Polish refugees and men from France, they raised the red flag in Baden. Friedrich Hecker, a popular orator and representa- tive of Baden, headed the movement. George Herwegh, the poet, took charge of the refugees from Switzerland and a group of German operatives recently returned from France. A provisional government was declared in the lake district of Baden. The Parliamentary majority of Frankfort, on breaking up, left behind a committee of fifty to prepare the 'draft of a constitution. The Bundestag meeting at the same time called for military measures against the insurgents. From three sides troops advanced into Baden. A Bavarian detachment marched from Lindau, Swabian troops came from the Black Forest, while from the north Hessian forces were led by General von Gagern, a brother of the new Prime Min- ister of Hesse. On April 19 Von Gagern encountered the revolutionists under Hecker at Kandern. While haranguing the insurgents, he was shot from his horse. The troops charged the insurgents with the bayonet and dispersed them in less than an hour. Four days later the revolutionary in- trenchments at Freiburg were stormed. On the 27th Her- wegh's corps of 1,000 refugees was dispersed by General Miller. Hecker fled to America. The other leaders likewise made good their escape. On April 29 they issued a mani- festo at Strasburg: "An overwhelming number of imported bestial mercenaries have crushed Republican aspirations in Baden, and have once more subjected the people to the hate- ful tyranny of princes." 1848 ITALY GOES IT ALONE The unexpected outbreak of revolution in Vienna and Hungary had inspired the Italians to rebel against Austrian rule with new confidence. Under the command of General Durando, a band of Crociati, or crusaders, marched from Rome against the Austrians. Count Balbo was placed in command of the Piedmontese army. To the remonstrances of the British Ambassador at Turin, King Charles Albert replied that he must either march against Austria or lose his crown. England was emphatic in its disapproval of the Ital- ian national movement. In the pages of the "Edinburgh Review," Sir Archibald Allison, the court historian, wrote: "It is utterly repugnant to the first principles of English policy, and to every page in English history, to lend encour- agement to the separation of nationalities from other em- pires." The new Republican Government in France, on its part, had no desire to see a strong Italian national State spring up on its southern frontier. Lamartine, the French Foreign Minister, declined Charles Albert's request to sanc- tion his military occupation of Lombardy. A strong French army of observation was concentrated on the Italian frontier in the Alps. Germany was so bound up with Austria that when Arnold Ruge in the Frankfort Parliament dared to express a wish for the victory of Italian arms against Austria, a great storm of indignation broke out in Germany. As a last resort, Charles Albert, on April 6, proposed an offensive and defen- sive alliance to Switzerland, but the little Republic wisely declined to emerge from its traditional neutrality. It was then that the Italians raised the defiant cry: "Italia fara de se" (Italy will fight her own battles). When the hard-beset Austrian Government, in a confidential communication of Minister Wessenberg to Count Casati, showed itself inclined to yield Lombardy upon payment of Lombardy's share in the Austrian national debt, the proposition was promptly and curtly declined. 688 184 THE POPE'S "ALLOCUTION"8 It was a fatal move. Affairs took a wrong turn in ANaples. There difficulties had arisen between the King and his Lib- eral Ministers over the exact wording of the oath of alle- giance. The excitable Neapolitan populace forthwith be- came unmanageable. The Swiss Guards put down the revolt without mercy. Once more King Ferdinand was master. He hastened to dismiss his Cabinet and dissolved the Par- liament before it could come to order. Orders were sent to General Pepe, who had marched to the front in northern Italy with 14,000 men, to return at once. General Pepe, who had already reached Bologna and had entered hostili- ties under Charles Albert's command, declined to obey the orders of his sovereign. His rank and file trooped back to Naples, only 1,500 volunteers remaining with Pepe at the front. A number of the officers who returned felt their dis- grace so keenly that they committed suicide. The Neapolitan fleet, which had already succeeded in raising the Austrian blockade of Venice, was likewise ordered home. A more seri- ous blow to the cause of Italy was Pius IX's apparent change of front. On April 29, without previous consultation with his new Ministry, the Pope issued the famous "Allocution," in which he declared that he had despatched his troops north- ward only for the defence of the Papal dominions, and that it was far from his intentions to join with the other Italian princes and peoples in the war against Austria. The Papal Ministry immediately handed in its resignation. The Mu- nicipal Council of Rome called upon the Pope to abstain from interference with his army. General Durando, coin- manding the Papal troops at the front, had already yielded to their entreaties by crossing the Po. Now he threw in his lot with Charles Albert. Pius IX arranged for an asylum at Naples in case the Roman people should turn against him. Charles Albert on the Mincio lost three precious weeks. His army now numbered nearly 100,000 men, only 60,000 of 689 1848 RADETZKY'S CAMPAIGN whom were trained soldiers. About this time he was joined by Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had just returned from the revo- lutionary battlefields of South America, whither he had been driven an exile from Charles Albert's own dominions. He was received with honor, and was put in charge of a volun- teer corps which he had raised at Milan. The Austrian com- mander profited by the delay of his opponents to place his army between the strong fortresses of Verona, Mantua, Leg- nano, and Peschiera, and to draw reenforcements from the Tyrol, until the situation in Austria itself became so threat- ening that no further aid could be given him. In truth, the fate of the Austrian Empire now rested on the aged shoulders of Radetzky. On April 8 the Sardinian army, in a sharp engagement at Goito, effected the passage of the Mincio. The Austrians lost 1,000 men. Siege was now laid to Peschiera. A Tuscan division moved on Mlantua, while the bulk of Charles Albert's army cut off Verona from the roads to the Tyrol. Radetzky was driven to take the offensive. In a fight at Cortatone he defeated the Tuscans, but within twenty-four hours the Austrian garrison of Peschiera was brought to the point of capitulation. The Italians took 2,150 men. On May 6 Charles Albert made an attempt to drive the Austrians out of their positions in front of Verona. Re- pulsed at Santa Lucia, he was forced to fall back on the Min- cio. Uinder the influence of the peace party, the Austrian Emperor now directed Radetzky to offer an armistice to the Italians. Simultaneously with this, Austrian reenforce- ments cut their way through to Verona. Radetzky implored the Emperor for permission to continue the combat. This was reluctantly given. Fearing another reversal of his orders, Radetzky forthwith threw his army into Venetia. General Durando and his Papal army were shut up in Vi- cenza, and compelled to capitulate. This capture was fol- lowed by that of all the Venetian mainland east of the Adige. 690 1848 CAPTURE OF MILAN The Republic of St. Mark sought shelter under the royal regis of Piedmornt. _Manin, the Liberator of Venice, re- signed his presidency and went into retirement. Charles Al- bert now moved on Mantua, leaving half his army at Pes- chiera and further north. Radetzky instantly threw himself on the weakly guarded centre of the long Sardinian line. Charles Albert sought too late to rejoin his northern detach- ments. At Custozza, on July 25, he suffered a signal defeat. While he was thrown back over the Mincio the northern di- visions were also overcome. Charles Albert retreated to Milan, closely followed by Radetzky. He declared himself unable to hold the city. The people rose against him. On the night of August 5 he escaped with difficulty, protected by General La -Marmora and a few guards. Milan capitulated on the following day. When the Austrians made their tri- umphant entry, half of the population left their homes to emigrate to Piedmont and Switzerland. On August 9 an armistice was arranged at Vigevano. Venice refused to ac- cept it, and detaching itself once more from Sardinia, restored Manin to power. Garibaldi with his volunteers likewise held aloof and carried the fight into the northern mountains. From there he was eventually dislodged by D'Aspre and crossed the frontier into Switzerland. The picturesque scenes of the revolutionary struggle in Italy have been perpetuated by IDenis-Auguste-Marie Raffet, a pupil of Charlot and of Gros, who had already distin- guished himself by his lithographs of the brief Belgian war of 1832, and by his Russian and Oriental sketches made while traveling with Prince Demidov. The success of Radetzky restored a measure of confidence in Austria. The Emperor and his court, who had sought refuge at Innsbruck, consented to return to Vienna. There the promised elections had been held, and an assembly rep- resenting all the provinces of the Empire, excepting Hun- 691 is"8 SLAVS AGAINST MAGYARS gary and Italy, had met in the third week of July. With the armies of ERadetzky and Windischgratz within call, the Em- peror and his Ministry assumed a bolder front toward the Magyars. The concessions exacted by Hungary in April had raised that kingdom almost to the position of an independent State. Under its separate management of the Hungarian army, Austria found it difficult even to use her Magyar troops at the front in Italy. The Magyars showed the same haughty spirit toward the Austrian Serbs, Slavs, and Croa- tians. After Hungary's successful emancipation in March, the Serbs of southern Hungary demanded from Kossuth the restoration of their own local autonomy. The Magyars insisted on maintaining their ascendency, and decreed that only the Magyar language should be the language of the state. Slavic race feeling was kindled to sudden hatred. The Croatian national committee at Agram, that had as- sumed charge of affairs after the catastrophe in March, elected Jellacic, the colonel of the first Croatian regiment, Ban of Croatia. The appointment was confirmed at Vienna, even before formal notification had reached the Emperor. On assuming office Jellacic caused all Magyar officials to be driven out of the country, and broke off all relations with the Hungarian Government at Pesth. Batthyany, the Hungarian Premier, hastened to Vienna, and obtained the disavowal of Jellacic. No attention was paid to this at Agram. Now, General Hrabovsky, commanding the troops in the southern provinces, received orders from Pesth to suspend Jellacic from office and bring him to trial for high treason. In the mean- while the Serbs, meeting in Congress at Carlowitz on the Lower Danube, proclaimed home rule, elected a Voivode (Governor) of their own and authorized him to enter into intimate relations with their fellow Slavs in Croatia. This was in the middle of May. Vienna during these same days was in a continual uproar. Early in May a report that the 692 1848 CONTEST FOR IMPERIAL FAVOR Austrian Ambassador at London had given a formal recep- tion to Prince Metternich upon his arrival in England caused an outbreak of popular wrath in Vienna. A mob sur- rounded the house of Count Ficquelmont, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and compelled him to resign his office. De- tachrnents of troops patroled the streets at night. On May 15 the people revolted against this measure before the pal- ace, and compelled Minister Pillersdorf to sign an order for the withdrawal of the troops. The Emperor and his family fled to the Tyrol. At Innsbruck, where he was received with great; demonstrations of loyalty, the Emperor issued a re- script in which he declined to return to his capital or to open the national assembly until order should be restored. In Croatia, on hearing of Hrabovsky's orders. the Palatine was burned in effigy. Batthyany hastened to Innsbruck to turn this Slavic affront to the crown to account. By assuring to the Emperor the support of Hungary's troops against the Italians, Batthyany obtained the Emperor's signature to an emphatic condemnation of Jellacic and his suspension from office. Jellacic then set out for Innsbruck, accompanied by a large deputation of Croats and Serbs. On the day that he arrived at Innsbruck, Batthyany at Pesth published the text of the Emperor's orders against the Ban. Still Jellacic held his ground. He regained the Emperor's favor by issuing an address to the Croatian soldiers serving in Italy, enjoining them to stand by the colors no matter what reports reached them from home. lIe was permitted to return to Croatia and to resume his government at Agram. As soon as he reached home, he declared himself the champion of Austrian unity, and assumed dictatorial powers. Civil war broke out in Lower Hungary. General Hrabovsk, 7whenl he attempted to occupy Carlowitz, encountered serious opposition. Ile was attacked with such vehemence by the Serbs, led by Stratimi- rovic, that he had to beat a retreat. The Hungarian Diet XIXth Century-Vol. II-12 6 93 1848 GERMAN PARLIAMMNT AT FRANKFORT at Pesth called for a levy of 200,000 men to crush the Slavic rebellion. In the face of a letter from the Emperor, con- demning the resistance offered to the Hungarian Government by the Slavs, Kossuth charged the Austrian Court with in- stigating the civil war. Evidence was brought forward to show that the Minister of War at Vienna was encouraging Austrian officers to join the insurrection. Such was the situ- ation in Austria at midsummer. At Frankfort, during this interval, the National Parlia- ment of Germany was convened on May 18. The event was celebrated throughout Germany with the ringing of bells and bonfires at night. In truth, the assembly was such that Germany might be proud of it. Of the 586 delegates, more than a hundred were university professors and scholars of eminence. Among them were such men as Arndt, the poet, Gervinus and Dahlberg, the historians, with others of like note. A promising unity of ideals seemed to prevail. Hein- rich von Gagern, a man of high character and parliamentary experience, was elected chairman by a majority of 305 out of 397 votes. It was his proposal to create a central executive in the person of a Reichlsverweser (Imperial vicegerent). Archduke John of Austria, one of the most popular of Ger- man princes, was elected to this office by an overwhelming majority of 436 votes. The Archduke, who was then pre- siding over the new Austrian Assembly at Vienna, accepted the honor. By the time the German Bundestag adjourned, on July 13, everything seemed full of promise. The minor German States formally acknowledged the new Reichsver- weser. King Frederick William of Prussia invited him, together with many members of the Frankfort Parliament, to the Cologne Cathedral festival on August 14. There the King pledged the Archduke at a public banquet: "May he give us," declared the King, "united and free German peo- ples; may he give us united and free sovereigns." A few 694 1848 ARMISTICE OF LMO184 days later an event occurred which opened the eyes of the Germans to Prussia's real part in the destinies of Germany. This was the armistice of Malmui, concluded on August 26, between Denmark and Prussia. The earlv German victories at Dannewirk and Oversee had borne no fruit. The Danes were masters of the sea, and mercilessly ravaged the German coasts, unprotected by any navy. The Danes took innumer- able prizes and crippled the commerce of the Hanseatic cities. General Wrangel thereupon exacted a contribution of 2,000,- 000 thalers in Jutland. For every fisherman's hut that the Danish fleet might injure on the German coast, he threatened to lay a Danish village in ashes. The foreign Powers ob- jected to such ruthless campaigning. The Scandinavian States intervened on behalf of Denmark. Emperor Nicholas of Russia, who regarded the Schleswig-Holstein movement as an unjustifiable rebellion, came to their support. Lord Palmerston, who had once proposed to end the quarrel by, simply cutting the disputed territory in two, according to the preferences of the inhabitants, now threw in the weight of England with the other Powers. Prussia was constrained to withdraw her army. According to the provisions of the seven months' truce forced upon Prussia at Maalm6 in Sweden, all prisoners were to be returned, the Schleswig- Holstein army was to be disbanded, while a temporary gov- ernment of the duchies was to be administered by represen- tatives of Denmark and Prussia. All Germany was in an uproar. The Frankfort Parliament repudiated the armis- tice by 238 against 221 votes. The new-formed German Ministry resigned. Professor DahImann, one of the protag- onists of the Schleswig-Holstein movement, was commis- sioned to form a new Ministry. His efforts resulted only in failure. The conviction grew that the German Parliament was powerless. Presently the Parliament revoked its own decision, approving the armistice by 258 over 236 votes. 695 1848 STATE EMPLOYMENT IN FRANCE After all, it was plain that the most momentous German question of the day had been settled independently of united Germany by Prussia standing alone. In South Germany the revolutionists wvere once more called to arms. The new Republican Government of France had been kept far too busy by the lo-gical consequences of its revolu- tionary measure-s to take any active part in the international settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question. The major- ity of the provisional government were moderate Republicans, representing the bourgeoisie, or middle class, rather than the workmen, but associated with them were such radicals as Louis Blanc, Ledru-Rollin, and Albert, a locksmith. During the first few days of the installation they undertook to guar- antee employment to every citizen. It proved a gigantic en- gagement. The mere distribution of idle workmen among the various industries in which they were employed called for a new branch of the administration. The task outgrew all expectations. Within four weeks the number of appli- cants for Government work rose from 140 to (35,000. Uinder the stimulus of Government competition, a series of labor strikes were declared against private factories and estab- lishments. The scheme, as then attempted, grew utterly unmanageable. The elections of April 23 gave the moderate element a handsome majority. An attempt to change the elections was frustrated by the \National Guard. Strengthened by this manifestation of popular approval, Lamartine and his col- leagues got rid of their radical associates in the Cabinet. The excluded Radicals now planned a new revolution. On May 15, simultaneously with the renewed riots in Vienna, an attempt was made to overthrow the Government. On the pretext of presenting a petition on behalf of Poland, a mob invaded the Chambers and dissolved the Assembly. A pro- visional government was installed at the Hotel de Ville. The 696 1848 INSURRECTION OF THE WORKMEN4 Government supporters rallied the National Guard. The lead- ers at the Hotel de Ville were taken captive. The Palais Bourbon was cleared, and the Deputies were reconvened in their assembly hall. Encouraged by this success, the Govern- ment resolved to rid itself of the incubus of the national workshops, after a variety of schemes with this purpose in view had been brought forward in the Assembly. The Gov- ernment cut the Gordian knot by a violent stroke. On June 21 an edict was issued that all beneficiaries of the public workshops between the ages of seventeen and twenty-five must enlist in the army or cease to receive support from the State. At this time more than 100,000 destitute men had flocked to the national workshops. They rose as of one ac- cord. The rising of June 23 was the most formidable yet experienced in Paris. The number of the workmen alona exceeded that of several army corps. The unity of griev- ances and interests gave them an esprit de corps similar to that of an army. The whole eastern part of Paris was bar- ricaded like a fortified camp. Instead of a niere revolt, the Government found itself entering upon a civil wvar. Gen- eral Cavaignac, the Minister of War, was placed in supreme command, the executive commission resigning its powers. He summoned all available troops into the capital. Regard- less of private interests, Paris was treated as a great battle- field in which the enemy was to be attacked in a mass and dislodged from all his main lines. The barricades were bat- tered down with field and siege artillery. Four days and nights the fight lasted. Whole houses and blocks in which the insurgents had found a lodgment had to be demolished. On the third dav the Archbishop of Paris was struck by a bullet while trying to stop the bloodshed. The National Guard, with a few exceptions, fought side by side with the regular troops. The workmen, threatened with the loss of their subsistence, fought with the courage of despair. At 697 1848 RISE OF LOUIS NAPOLEON the point of the bayonet they were at last driven into the northeastern quarter of the city. There, plied with grape and canister from every direction, they were brought to the point of surrender. After this hard-won victory, the Government did not hesi- tate to transport without trial the whole mass of prisoners taken alive. A policy of reaction set in. The Government workshops and other concessions to socialism were abandoned. General Cavaignac, at the direction of the Assembly, retained his dictatorial powers until a new Constitution could be drafted. It seemed as if Cavaignac was marked to become the permanent ruler of France, but his own Aigid Repub- licanism stood in his way. It was at this time that Prince Louis Napoleon once more came into prominence. When he first made his reappearance in Paris he was requested to leave by the Provisional Government. Retiring to England, he awaited developments, while his friends and supporters agitated in his behalf. During the supplementary elections he was nominated for the Chambers by four districts at once, and, despite the Government's efforts, he obtained a four- fold election. A vote of the Assembly declared the election valid. With unwonted self-command the Prince declined to take his seat, on the ground that it might embarrass the Gov- ernment in its difficult situation. His letter to the President of the Assemblv ended with the significant declaration that if duties should be imposed upon him by the will of the people he would know how to fulfil them. Three months later, in the midst of the debates on the Constitution, while Cavaignac was still in power, Louis Na- poleon was reelected to the Assembly-this time by five de- partments. His hour had come. From this moment he was a recognized aspirant for power. The great name of his uncle shed its glory upon him. The new Constitution of the Re- public provided that a President with executive powers should 698 1848 DEATH OF CHOPIN1 be elected by a direct vote of all citizens. Louis Napoleon at once became a candidate. In an address to the people he declared that he would devote himself -without stint to the maintenance of the Republic. In well-worded generalities something was promised to all the classes and parties of France. The other candidates were Cavaignac and Lamar- tine. Out of 7,000,000 votes cast in this election, 5,000,000 went to Louis Napoleon. The mere glamour of an imperial name cast a new spell over France. In the imidst of these stirring events in Paris, Frederic Chopin, the piano composer, died on October 17. Born at 'Jelisovaya-Volia in Poland, he received his early musical education at Warsaw. At the age of nine lie played a piano- forte concerto with improvisations in public. In his fifteenth year he published a rondo and a fantasie. Having perfected himself as a pianist, he set out on a concert tour through Vienna, Munich, Paris, and London. His reception at Paris was such that he gave up all idea of proceeding further and made Paris his home for life. He was welcomed to the inti- macy of men like Liszt, Berlioz, Meyerbeer, Bellini, Balzac, and Heine. As one after another of his unique compositions for the piano appeared, he took rank as the foremost com- poser for that instrument. In 1836 Chopin met Madame Dudevant, better known as the celebrated novelist George Sand. Their attachment was mutual. For her he wrote some of his most inspired pieces. They spent the winter of 1838-39 together on the island of Majorca, where George Sand nursed Chopin through a se- vere attack of bronchitis. Of this episode, which had its pro- found effect on Chopin's music, George Sand has left an iinengaging record in her "History of My Life." Chopin re- turned from Majorca broken in health. He was supplanted in George Sand's affections by Alfred de iAlusset. During the season of 1848-49 he gave concerts in London, whence '699 1848 SICILIANS DEPOSE FERDINAND he returned to Paris only to die. He was buried at PNre la Chaise, between Bellini's and Cherubini's graves. In Italy, after the armistice between the Austrians and the Piedmontese, matters went from bad to worse. In Sicily a National Parliament had met and declared King Ferdinand and the House of Bourbon to have forfeited the crown for- ever. Elections were ordered to call another Prince to the vacant throne. The Duke of Genoa, Albert Amadeus of Savoy, Charles Albert's second son, was chosen King on July 12. The British and French warships in Sicilian waters fired a royal salute. For Charles Albert this only meant fresh embarrassment. In case of acceptanec, he was sure to be involved in war with Naples in the south, as well as with Austria in the north. When the Sicilian deputies sub- mitted their proposition in Piedmont on August 27, they obtained no definite reply. Meanwhile King Ferdinand of Naples gathered his forces to win back Sicily. In the north the cause of Italy was on the wane. Francis V was reinstated as Duke of Modena, with the help of Austrian arms. Austrian troops under Count Thurn occupied the Duchy of Parma, the Duke remaining in Germany. In Tuscany, the Archduke found it difficult to maintain himself at Florence. His prin- cipality was overrun by radical refugees. A revolutionary junta at Leghorn threatened to proclaim the Republic unless the Duke of Tuscany should appoint a governor in sympathy with their ideas. In his extremity the Duke sent them Mon- tanelli, a political dreamer, who proclaimed Jesus Christ as the father of democracy. At Venice the Republic of St. Mark, under Manin's able leadership, still held its own. Austria's occupation of Ferrara and the Romagna brought new embarrassment to the Pope. Formal protests were, made in vain by Pope Pius IX and the diplomatic representatives of France and England. The Papal Ministry of Mamiani o00 1848 "KING BOMBA"1 resigned. The Roman Radicals, under the leadership of Prince Canino, a Bonaparte, clamored for war. Some Aus- trian officers who dared to show themselves in Bologna were murdered by the mob. Fighting began around Bologna. Too late the Austrians consented to relieve the Pope from this embarrassment by withdrawing their troops from his dominions. The Pope's new Minister, Count Pelligrino Rossi, an unusually able and forceful man who had once acted as an envoy for Louis Philippe, was denounced as a Frenchman and an enemy to Italy. In September King Ferdinand of Naples, having got rid of his Parliament, launched his forces upon Sicily. General Filangieri, with 12,000 men, was sent against Messina. There the Neapolitan garrison still held the citadel-all that remained to Ferdinand of his Sicilian kingdom. Three days before Filangieri landed, the gunners in the citadel began to bombard the helpless town lying beneath them. Half of the city was laid in ruins. The foreign warships in the harbor were filled with refugees. It was this outrage that gave to King Ferdinand the nickname of "King Bomba." The in- habitants remained steadfast. When Filangieri effected his landing, the fight was carried on with ferocity. The fall of the city was followed by barbarous excesses. For three days incendiary fires raged in the hapless town. At last the foreign admirals, Parker and Baudin, put a stop to the horrors, "as against all canons of civilized nations." An armistice was established between the Neapolitans and the Sicilians. King Ferdinand's dogged resistance to the remonstrances of the French and English Ambassadors was strengthened by the latest event in Rome. On November 15, as the Roman Chambers were about to be opened, Prime Minister Rossi was assassinated as he left his carriage to enter the Chambers. It was the signal for a new revolt. The delegates in the Hall of Chambers sought 701 1848 RIOT IN FRANKFORT safety in flight. The National Guards made common cause with the insurgents. A howling mob beset the Quirinal. But for the resolute stand of the Pope's Swiss mercenaries, the palace would have been stormed. For a while the Pope was practically a prisoner in his palace, while the Prince of Panino and Sterbini, the President of the Circolo Popolare, ruled Rome. At last, on the night of November 24, Pius IX, in the disguise of a groom, escaped from Rome, seated on the box of the carriage of the Bavarian Ambassador, Count Spaur. He fled to Naples. From the Neapolitan fortress Gaeta he sent a letter to his "dearest son," the Emperor of Austria, imploring his help against the Republic of Rome. At Frankfort the ratification of the armistice of Malm6 by the German Parliament had aroused the Radicals to fury. On September 17, the day after the second vote on this mat- ter, a mass meeting was called at Frankfort. One delegate, Zitz, proposed the abolition of the Parliament; another, Ludwig Simon, declared the time had come to discuss all further questions from behind barricades. The Municipal Senate of Frankfort, taking alarm, ordered out the city troops and appealed for help to Prussia. On the morrow fighting began in the streets of Frankfort. Barricades had been erected overnight, and all day long the insurgents held their ground. It was known that a Prussian column was approaching. Prince Lichnovski and General von Auers- wald, two leaders of the Conservative majority in the Par- liament, rashly undertook to meet the Prussian troops half-way. At the gates of Frankfort both men were seized by the insurgents and were lynched by the mob. Shortly before midnight the Prussian troops arrived and soon overran the barricades with their bayonets. On the following day the city was under military rule. In other parts of South Germany revolution had broken out anew. The Prince of Sigmaringen was driven from his 702 .848 DEMOCRATIC CONVENTTION AT BERLIN little domain, which was proclaimed a republic. Insurgent expeditions were organized in Wurtemburg and Baden. There Karl Blind and Gustav Struve made another attempt o01 Freiburg. At Staufen, on September 24, they were beaten back by regular troops under General Hofmain and fled toward Switzerland. Struve himself was captured near the frontier. On the same dav the German Cabinet at Frank- fort was reinstated. Still the ill-success of popular govern- ment in Germany had brought the Parliament into lasting disrepute. The reaction was first felt at Berlin. There the return of General Wrangel's troops from Denmark was followed by friction between the soldiers and the democratic agitators in the streets. A resolution was passed in the popular Par- liament of Prussia that all officers out of sympathy with democratic government should be encouraged to leave the army. The failure of the Minister of War to act on this suggestion was followed by his downfall. Having succeeded in this, the parliamentary majority next passed a vote to eliminate the words "by the grace of God" from the titles of the King. Toward the end of October a national con- vention of democrats met at Berlin, and held its sessions amid tumultuous scenes in the streets. In exasperation, the King dissolved the Cabinet that had been forced upon him, and commissioned Count Brandenburg, a natural son of Frederick William II, to form another. It included Aiajor- General von Strotha, Minister of War, and Otto von Man- teuiffel, Minister of the Interior. The Parliament sent a deputation to remonstrate with the King. One of the dele- gates, Jacoby, as the King terminated the audience, called after him: "Behold the chief misfortune of kings, that they will not listen to the truth !" Immediatelv after this Ninag Frederick William IV prorogued the Parliament to the town of Brandenburg. The majority of the delegates declined to 703 1848 RIOT AT PRAGUE adjourn. The Cabinet Ministers, followed by the members that had been outvoted, left the hall. On November 15 the remaining Parliament issued a proclamation to the people to withhold all further payment of taxes. General Wrangel posted his troops throughout Berlin. The Municipal Guards of Berlin were dissolved. An attempt on the part of the Parliament to meet again was easily frustrated. The taxes -were collected as before. When the Parliamentary minority came to order at Brandenburg their sessions were dissolved by royal order. On his own initiative, King Frederick Wil- liam IV now proclaimed a constitution. The Chambers, pro- visions for which were contained in this royal constitution, were to meet at Berlin on February 24, 1849. Such was the end of tfie People's Parliament in Prussia. All Austria was in a state of civil war. After the ex- ample of the Slavs in Servia and Croatia, the Czechs of Bohemia rose at Prague. Austrian-German authority there collapsed. A National Guard was organized and a popular Assembly convened. In midsummer a Congress of Slavs from all parts of Austria met at Prague. Popular excite- ment rose to a threatening pitch. On the day that the Pan- Slavic Congress broke up, barricades were erected and fighting began in the streets of Prague. The wife of Count Windischgritz, the military commandant, was killed by a bullet. Windischgritz, after withdrawing his troops, threat- ened to bombard the city unless the barricades were removed. This was not done. Windischgrktz then took the city by storm. Military law was proclaimed. This success, like that of Radetzky's arms in Italy, gave new hope to the Austrian Emperor. Ile pronounced his veto on Hungary's military measures against Croatia. A hundred delegates from the Magyar Diet at Pesth posted to Vienna to exact from the Emperor the fulfilment of his promises to Hungary. On September 9 the Emperor received them at his palace with 704 1848 LYNCHING OF GENERAL LAMBERG renewed assurances that he would keep his plighted word. A few hours afterward the official "Gazette" published a let- ter over the Emperor's signature, expressing his full approval of Jellacic's measures in Croatia. This was all Jellacic had been waiting for. On September 11 he crossed the Drave with his Croatians and marched upon Pesth. Archduke Stephen, the Hungarian Palatine, took command of the Mag- yar army and went to the front. At Lake Baloton he re- quested a conference with Jellacic. The Ban paid no at- tention to it. Realizing the secret support given to Jellacic by the Crown, Archduke Stephen resigned his command in Hungary. The Emperor now appointed General Lamberg at Vienna to the supreme command over the military forces of Hungary as well as Croatia. At the same time the Austrian Cabinet submitted a memorial suggesting that the laws es- tablishing Hungarian autonomy be declared null and void. On the publication of this memorial in Pesth, Batthvanv's Mlinistry resigned. Kossuth openly proposed war with Aus- tria. When Lamberg arrived at Pesth, Kossuth prevailed upon the Diet to withhold its ratification of Lamberg's ap- pointment. Should Lamberg attempt to resume his military command Kossuth demanded that he should be outlawed as a traitor. As General Lamberg crossed the bridge between Buda and Pesth he was recognized by the populace. A cry was raised that he meant to seize the citadel and bombard the town. Ile was dragged from his carriage, and torn to pieces by the mob. His body was dragged through the streets, and finally strung up before one of the Government buildings. A. few days later Count Zichy, one of the Magyar magnates, was court-martialed by order of Arthur Goergey, the Hungarian llonved leader, for entering into a correspondence with Jellacie, and was shot. On the receipt of this news Emperor Ferdinand declared the Hungarian Parliament dissolved, and pronounced all its 05 1848 REVOLUTION IN VIENNA acts null and void. Jellacic was appointed representative of Austria in Hungary with command of all the forces. The Ilag- yar Diet repudiated the Emperor's manifesto as a breach of the constitution, and pronounced Jellacic a traitor. Jellacic's forces were checked by the Hungarian army in their advance upon Pesth. General Latour, the Austrian Minister of War, ordered a division of troops at Vienna to go to the support of Jellacic. The Magyar sympathizers at Vienna raised a fearful uproar. As the troops were marching out of the city several battalions were prevailed upon to mutiny. The Hungarian flag was hoisted above the Cathedral of St. Stephen. The National Guard joined the mutiny. Other battalions of the line were driven out of the city. The guards at the arsenal capitulated. Vienna was at the mercy of the insurgents. The Emperor, wvho had sought -refuge at Schon- brunn, left his palace at four on the morning of October 1, and fled to Olmiitz. As soon as the news of these events reached Jellacic he evacuated his threatened positions on the banks of the Raab and marched for Vienna. Windischgrdtz, with his garrison, set out from Prague. Revolutionists of all races flocked into Vienna. Among them were the German delegates Froebel and Blum, and the Polish general, Bem. The Hungarians pursued Jellacic no further than their fron- tier. The regiments expelled from Vienna, under the com- mand of Count Auersperg, joined forces with Jellacic. The insurgents at Vienna manned their fortifications as well as they could, and called upon the people throughout Austria to take up arms. Emperor Ferdinand, at Olmiitz, offset this by an imperial proclamation to his people in which he guar- anteed all peasant rights. Prince Windischgritz was created a field marshal, with full command over all the forces in the Empire, except those under Radetzky in Italy. Windisch- grAtz took immediate steps to effect a junction with Jellacic 7!s 1848 IMPERIAL TROOPS TAKE VIENNA by seizing the bridges at Krems and Stein. In vain did the delegates from Frankfort, who now appeared upon the scene, present their offer of intervention. Windisch- gratz would not listen to them. On October 23 the Austrian army, 80,000 strong, appeared before Vienna. The defence of the city had been entrusted to Captain Messenbauser, an officer of the regular army, and to General Bem. Robert Blum, who, together with Froebel, had come to Vienna from the Parliamentary minority at Frankfort with messages of sympathy for the popular cause, fought in the ranks. While Windischgriitz was wasting his time in parleys, an army of 18,000 Hungarians crossed the frontier and threatened Jel- lacic's rear. On October 28, twenty-four hours after the time fixed in Windischgrdtz's last ultimatum, he began his assault on the city. In the course of an all-day fight the troops succeeded in taking the suburbs. The scenes of that night were frightful. The troops bivouacked on the ramparts. The following Sun- day was spent in further parleys. Already the terms of capitulation had been settled, when Messenhauser, from the top of the church of St. Stephen, made out the approaching columns of the Hungarians. The news of their arrival was signaled to the city by a column of smoke rising from the top of the tower. All negotiations for surrender were dropped. The Hungarians attacked Jellacic on the banks of the Schwe- chat, within a few leagues of the capital. The boom of their artillery could be plainly heard in Vienna. In a frenzy of enthusiasm the Viennese resumed the struggle. A corps of students attempted a sortie. Unfortunately for them, the engagement on the banks of the Schwechat turned against the Hungarians. Shortly after noon they gave way all along the line and fell back toward Hungary. On the ramparts of Vienna the hopeless fight of a few thousand civilians against an army of 90,000 men was continued until night' fall. At six in the evening the troops broke into the city. 707 1848 ACCESSION OF FRANCIS JOSEPH On the following day, November 1, Prince Windischgrdtz declared Vienna under military law. Courts-martial fol- lowed in profusion. Robert Blum was one of the first to be shot. A new Ministry was installed, under the leadership of the notorious Prince Felix Schwarzenberg and Count Stadion. They announced their program to be the main- tenance of a strong central government and the integrity of the Austrian Empire, with quick suppression of the civil war in Hungary. A new Reichsrath was convoked at the village of Kremsier, near Olmiitz. On December 2 Ferdinand abdi- cated his throne. His brother, Archduke Francis Charles, renounced the succession. The Archduke's son, Francis Joseph, a youth of eighteen, was declared by a family council to have attained his majority, and ascended the throne. The Hungarian Diet, on learning of this transfer of the crown, refused to acknowledge Francis Joseph as King of Hungary. The whole nation was summoned to arms. The command of the army was given to Goergey. His first seri- ous problem was a rising of the Roumanians in Transylvania against Magyar rule. When they raised the standard of the Empire, the Austrian commander, General Puchner, espoused their cause. Transylvania was lost to Hungary. The Roumanians led by Puchner cooperated with Jellacic's forces in Croatia, and moved on Hungary from that quarter. On December 15 the main Austrian army, under Windisch- gratz, crossed over the River Leitha and invaded Hungary. Goergey declared from the first that Pesth would have to be abandoned. Kossuth's frantic efforts to prevent this only served to hamper Goergey's able campaign. One line after another had to be abandoned. At last, toward the close of the year, Kossuth and his Magyar Diet were compelled to evacu- ate Pesth. The army retired over the River Theiss to the fortress of Comorn and the mountains of northern Hungary. The government was established at Debreezin. 708 1848 EVENTS OF 1849 Imperial Forces Enter Budapest-Bem, the Pole Defeats Puchner in Siebenbfirgen-Goergey Beats Schlik in the F4orth-Drawn Battle of British and Sikhs at Chilian Wallah-Mulraj Surrenders to Whish-Gough Wins Battle of Guzerat-Punjab Annexed to Brit- ish India-Inauguration of President Taylor-Settlement of Cali- fornia-Death of Poe-Cabrera Removes His Catalonian Rebels to France-Tuscans Expel Their Duke and Proclaim Republic-Ro- mans Depose Pope and Proclaim Republic--Kossuth Deposes Gen- eral Goergey-Repeated Defeats of Hungarians Kossuth Recalls Goergey-Hungarian Victories-Goergey Takes Pesth-Magyar Diet Deposes the Hapsburgs-End of Truce Between Austria and Italy- Radetzky Concentrates at Pavia-Drives Italians Back All Along the Line-Crushes Charles Albert at Novara-Charles Albert Abdl- cates-His Son, Victor Emmanuel, Becomes King of Sardinia and Leader of Patriot Forces-Rather than Annul Constitution He Suffers Austrians to Garrison Piedmont-Austria Restores Italian Grandduk-s-EFrance Sends Troops to Restore Pius IX-Sicilian Patriots are Defeated-Denmark Opens Hostilities with Prussia on Expiration of Armistice Danes are Defeated on Land and Sea, and Shut Up in Fridericia-German Parliament Elects King of Prussia as Sovereign of United Germany-He Rejects the Crown-The Par- liament is Disrupted-Radical Representatives Return Home to Start Revolutions Throughout Germany-Baden Declares Itself a Republic-Parliament Attempts to Reassemble at Stuttgart-Is Dis- persed by Troops-Prussian Troops Restore Sovereigns of Revolt- ing States-Victorious Sortie of Danes from Fridericia-Armistice -Schleswig Entrusted to International Commission-Holstein Aban- doned to Danes-Russia Joins with Austria to Crush Hungary-The Allies Storm Raab-Austrians Occupy Budapest-Vetter Defeats Jellacic at Hegyes-Goergey Defeats Russians at Waitzen-Dem- binsky is Defeated at Czoreg, and Bem at Kemmisvar-Goergey Surrenders Entire Magyar Forces to Russians-Austria Hangs Magyar Patriots and Annuls All Hungarian Rights-French Re- publicans Rise against Government Support of Pope Louis Napo- leon Suppresses Them-French Storm Rome and Restore Papal Power-Pope Establishes Inquisition and Absolutism-Austrians Reenter Venice. O N January 5 Windischgratz and Jellacic made their triumphant entry into Budapest. During this inter- val the Polish general, Bem, who had escaped from Vienna, aroused his countrymen in Siebenbiirgen and car- ried the war into that region. The Austrian troops under General Puchner were beaten in a series of engagements. Goergey, aided by another Pole, Dembinsky, repulsed the Austrian troops under General Schlik in the north. While 709 BATTLE OF CHILIAN WALLAR Windischgritz remained idle at Pesth, Klapkah, the new Hungarian Minister of War, organized the Magyrar forces and created new defences for his country. In England tidings of a disaster in Afghanistan provoked an outburst of alarm and indignation. On January 13 Lord Gough had advanced on Sher Singh's intrenchments at Chil- ian Wallab. They were held by 30,000 Sikhs with sixty guns, screened by a thick jungle. As the British impru- dently exposed themselves the Sikhs opened fire. Lord Gough ordered a general charge. The drawn battle that followed proved the bloodiest affair in the history of British India. Driven from their first line of defences, the Sikhs stood their ground in another stronger position, and repulsed the British attack. Nearly 2,500 British officers and men fell in the fight. In the face of the Afghan rejoicings Lord Gough claimed a victory. The British War Office, however, hastily despatched Sir Charles -Napier to India to supersede Lord Gough. There was still time for that commander to retrieve himself. General Whish captured the town of Multan, and bv terrible bombardment of the citadel brouight Mlulraj to surrender. General Whish then joined forces with Lord Gough in his final struggle with Sher Sinlgh. At Guzerat, on Feb- ruary 22, Lord Gough achieved the crowning victory known as "the battle of the guns." For two hours a terrific artillery duel was maintained, the Sikhs firing with all their sixty pieces. Finally the British stormed their batteries in a comn- bined charge of bayonets and cavalry. The Sikh forces were scattered, and their camp, with most of their standards and guns, were captured by the British. Dost Muhammad Khan and his Afghans were driven out of Peshawar and narrowly escaped to Kabul. MNulraj was imprisoned for life. The whole of the Punjab was annexed to British India. A suc- cessful administration of this hostile province was Lord Dalhousie's first great triumph. 710 1849 DEATH OF POE About the same time, General Taylor, the conqueror of Buena Vista, was inaugurated as President of the United States. One sentence in his inaugural address provoked de- rision: "We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind." The old Spanish missions in the conquered ter- ritory were deprived of their wealth and influence. The name of San Francisco was adopted in place of Yerba Buena. Besides California, the new territory included the subse- quently admitted States of Nevada, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Wyoming, and Kansas. The Apache and Navajo Indians in those regions gave immediate trouble. The gold seekers tracking across the plains were the first to suffer from the Indians. Still the stream of im- migrants poured into California. Their half-way stations on the Missouri River developed into the two thriving towns of Omalha and Coumcil Bluffs. The Bav of San Francisco was soon surrounded by a settlement of tents and sheds. A Vigilance Committee took affairs into its own hands, and administered justice without fear or favor. Six times the new city was destroyed by fire. Within two months all traces of the disaster would be lost. California soon had a popula- tion entitling it to Statehood. President Taylor eagerly seconded the wishes of the people for a government of their own. The first Constitutional Convention of California de- clared against slavery. More than 40,000,000 worth of gold was produced in the new State, and the first gold dollars were coined. The death of Edgar Allan Poe, the American poet, was as tragic as his life had been. Passing through Baltimore at the time of a local election, Poe fell into the hands of re- peaters, who either drugged him or made him drunk in order to use him for their purposes. Next morning he was found unconscious on the street, and was taken to a hospital where he died. After Poe's death the simplest and sweetest of his 4t11 1849 ROMANS DEPOSE POPE ballads, "Annabel Lee," and the wonderful poem of "The Bells," were published. Poe's fame as a master of the weird and fanciful in literature was already established wherever his thrilling tales and superb poem "The Raven" had pene- trated4 The best of his poems were rendered in choice French by Beaudelaire, while his short stories were trans- lated into almost all European languages. In Europe the startling upheavals of the previous year were followed by an aftermath no less startling. Even in Spain, where a first attempt at revolution had easily been crushed at Madrid, Don Carlos deemed the time ripe to join Cabrera's revolutionary rising in Catalenia. On his way there he was arrested at the French frontier. Deprived of his support, Cabrera himself had to remove his forces to French soil. In Italy the revolutionary movement spread. On Feb ruary 7 Duke Leopold of Florence was driven out of Tus- cany. A republican government was established at Florence under the triumvirate of Guerazzi, Montanelli, and Manzoni. Taking refuge on a British man-of-war, the Duke of Tuscany fled to Gaeta to share the Pope's exile there. On the same day that the new Republic was proclaimed at Florence a popular assembly at Rome formally deposed the Pope from temporal power and proclaimed the Republic of Rome. The armistice in Sicily was about to expire. King Ferdinand's final concessions to his rebellious subjects were repudiated. Lord Palmerston, who had vainly offered British mediation to Ferdinand, on the floor of Parliament openly defended the uncompromising attitude of the Sicilians. In preparation for the inevitable conflict, Filangieri gathered an army of 20,000 Neapolitans, while 2tierolavsky, a Pole, took command of the Sicilian insurgents. Meanwhile the tide of war set against the Hungarians. On February 4 Bem was defeated on the site of his former victory at HIermannstadt. While retreating he was 'defeated 712 1849 MAGYAR DIET DEPOSES HAPSBURGS again at Paiski. By the middle of February the Austrians succeeded in taking the fortress of Essek from the Hun- garians. Toward the close of the month a disastrous defeat was inflicted upon the Hungarians under the command of General Dembinsky at Kapolna. Kossuth had made the mis- take of superseding Goergey by that commander. Now Goergey was reinstated. The Hungarians rallied. On March 5 the Magyar Csikos, or irregular cavalry, under Janos Damjanies, defeated the Austrians under General Grammont at Szolnok. A few days later the Hungarian army in Transylvania, under General Bemn, retrieved their ill-fortune by another glorious victory at Hermannstadt. A Russian contingent from Wallachia, which had crossed the frontier to assist the Austrians, was defeated by Bem at Brasso. General Puchner and his Russian allies sought refuge across the border. Goergey relieved Komorn. The ablest of the Austrian generals, Schlik, was beaten at Hapvan, while Jellacic was overthrown at Isaszteg and Goedoelloe. Prince Windischgrdtz had to give up Pesth. Goergey added a touch of humor by attributing the Hungarian victory solely to the activity of Windischgritz and Jellacic. On March 4 Emperor Francis Joseph had annulled the old Hungarian constitution. Kossuth retaliated in kind. Under his influ- ence the Magyar Diet at Debreezin pronounced the deposi- tion of the House of Hapsburg from the throne of Hungary an(l declared the independence of Hungary and the adjoining southern provinces. While the Hungarian army, instead of marching on Vienna, lost valuable time before Ofen, the Austrian Government improved the interval to perfect its long-threatened alliance with Russia. In the interim war had broken out anew in Schleswig- Holstein and in Italy. Before the expiration of the Aus- trian-Italian armistice, Charles Albert of Sardinia, in a spirited address on February 1 announced his determina- 71S 1849 ITALY'S SUCCESSIVE DEFEATS tion to renew the war. To this desperate resolve he was driven by the increasing turbulence of Italian affairs. The spread of the revolutionary movement to his dominions could be forestalled only by placing himself once more at the head of the Italian movement. In some respects the moment ap- peared propitious. Charles Albert's army now numbered 120,000 men, while Radetzky had little more than 70,000 Austrians. A characteristic note of the times was the ap- pointment of Poles to command the Italian troops. Prince Chrzanovsky, who had fought under Napoleon at Leipzig and Waterloo, and had subsequently commanded a Russian division at Varna, was put in supreme command, seconded by Alexander La Marmora. Another Pole, or half Pole, Rarnorino, who had figured in the unfortunate rising of 1833, commanded the legion of Lombardy. On March 12 the pend- ing termination of the truce was officially announced. At noon on March 20 hostilities were to be resumed. The cam- paign that followed lasted but five days. Radetzky, by his preliminary feint, made the Italians believe that he would evacuate Lombardy as heretofore; but at the last moment he quickly concentrated his five army corps at Pavia. At the stroke of noon, on March 20, he threw his army across the Tessino on three bridges. While the Italians believed that Radetzky was retreating on the Adda, the Austrians -were already bivouacking on the flank of the Piedmontese army. Three bloody engagements at Mortara, Gambola and Sfor- zesca, on March 21, ended in a retreat of the Italians all along the line. Ramorino had received orders to move north- ward and to destroy the bridges behind him. Out of accord with his countryman, Chrzanovsky, he disobeyed his orders and lingered at Stradella. Radetzky flung his army in be- tween, and cut off the Italian line of retreat upon Turin and Alessandria. It was then that Benedek, an Austrian colonel, distinguished himself by leading his troops far in advance 714 1849 BATTLE OF NOVARA of the Austrian army, and cutting his way through an Italian brigade, under the cover of night. At midnight of MAarch 21 Charles Albert had to order a general retreat on Novara. There Chrzanovzky determined to make a stand with his main column of about 50,000 men. Radetzky was in doubt whether the Italians had fallen back on Novara or Vercelli. To make sure he sent his troops in both directions. Ile himn- self remained at his headquarters, so as to be ready to ride either wav. The roar of artillery from Novara, on the morn- ing of March 23, told him where the battle was to be fought. There General D'Aspre, commanding the second Austrian army corps, undertook to win some laurels on his own ac- count by a bold attack on the superior position of the Italians. As Charles Albert rode out of the gate of Novara he received the last cheers of his devoted Bersaglieri. After a three hours' fight the scale turned against the Austrians. Count D'Aspre repented of his rashness, and sent for help to Count Thurn at Vercelli. Fortunately for him, Radetzky and Thurn had marched in that direction as soon as they heard the sound of the cannon. It was a race between the two divisions. As Radetzky, at the head of the first army corps, galloped through Nebola, the aged marshal met the retreat- ing columns of D'Aspre's second corps. Both the first and the third Austrian corps rushed into the battle almost simul- taneously. The Italian advance was checked. At last, when Thurn's fourth corps arrived at sundown, the Austrian bugles sounded for a general charge. The Italian line of battle was overthrown. The Austrian cavalry circled around the flank. While the Italians fled into Novara they suffered from the fire of their own artillery. Charles Albert was one of the last who left the Bicocca to seek refuge in Novara. The town itself was bombarded by the Austrian artillery far into the night. Standing on the ramparts of Novara, Charles Albert realized the disastrous nature of his defeat. His losses 715 1849 ACCESSION OF VICTOR EMMANUEL aggregated more than 7,000, of whom 3,000 had been taken captive. Of the Austrian losses of 3,158 men, five-sevenths fell to D'Aspre's corps. The other Austrian divisions were practically intact. The Italians were in confusion. Charles Albert, who throughout the day had exposed his person with the utmost gallantry, had to be dragged from the ramparts by General Durando. As the Austrian shells struck all around them he exclaimed, "Leave me, General. Let it be the last day of my life. I wish to die." At last he con- sented to send his Minister, Cadorna, to Radetzky's head- quarters to sue for an armistice. Cadorna was received in an insulting manner. Charles Albert camne to the conclusion that his own person was an obstacle in the way of peace. That night he resigned his crown. In the presence of his generals he pronounced his eldest son, Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia. Accompanied by but one attendant he left Novara, and passed unrecognized through the enemy's lines. Sending a farewell letter to his wife, he went into exile. A few months later he died at Oporto in Portugal. On the day after the battle of Novara, King Victor Em- manuel sought out Marshal Radetzky and came to terms. Venice and the Italian duchies had to be relinquished to the Austrians. Austrian troops, in conjunction with those of Piedmont, occupied Alessandria. Piedmont was to reduce its army to a peace footing, to disperse all volunteers, and to pay a war indemnity of a5,000,000 francs. The Austrian demand that Victor Emmanuel should annul the liberal constitution granted by his father was unconditionally re- fused. For this Piedmont had to suffer a prolonged mili- tary occupation by Austrian troops, but Victor Emmanuel, by the same token, retained his father's claim to the leader- ship of the national cause of Italy. The victory of Austrian arms was speedily followed by the return of the princes of northern Italy to their petty thrones. Radetzky's troops 716 1849 FERDINAND "PACIFIES" SICILY undertook the reconquest of Venice. To forestall an Aus- trian movement against Rome, France undertook to reinstate Pius IX in the Holy Chair of St. Peter. A French expedi- tion under Oudinot., a son of the famous marshal, disem- barked at Civita Vecchia. Mazzini and Garibaldi alone rallied their men to the defence of the Republic. In Sicily hostilities had been likewise renewed on March 29. The Sicilians were discouraged by the report of the Italian defeats in the north. Filangieri succeeded in cap- turing Taormina, the Sicilian base of supplies. In the de- fence of Catania the Polish general commanding the Sicilian troops, Mierolavsky, was severely wounded. At the foot of Mount Etna, the Sicilians were again defeated on April 6, Good Friday. Catania was taken. Syracuse surrendered to the Neapolitan fleet. Filangieri's army penetrated into the interior. In vain did the English and Austrian Ambassa- dors offer mediation. Ruggiero Settimo resigned his Presi- dency of the Sicilian Republic. The heads of the insurrec- tion fled the country. Palermo surrendered. The customary courts-martial and military executions followed. Until the accession of King Ferdinand's eldest son to the throne, Filan- gieri ruled as military governor. In commemoration of one of the cities he had laid in ashes, he was created Duke of Taormina. When England tried to exact the promised rec- ognition of the, Constitution of 1812, King Ferdinand re- jected the proposal with the sardonic statement that peace had been reestablished in Sicily, and everybody was content. The armistice of MalmZi with Denmark expired on Feb- ruary 26. The German Bundestag mobilized three divisions of the allied German federation. Within a month Prussian, Bavarian, and Swabian troops marched into Holstein. A Prussian general, Von Prit-twitz, assumed supreme command. On April 3 the Danes opened hostilities by a bombardment of the island of Allston. Then came the battle of Ecken- XIXth Century-Vol. 11-13 717 1849 1849 FREDERICK WILLIAM DECLINES IMPERIAL CROWN foerde, when German shore batteries blew up the Danish ship of the line, "Christian VIII," and two smaller vessels, the crews of which surrendered. On April 13 the Bavarians and Saxons stormed the intrenchments of Dueppel. One week later the German troops, in conjunction with the vol- unteers of Schleswig-Holstein, under Von Bonin, occupied Jutland, and defeated the Danes at Kolding. A Danish advance from Fridericia was repulsed after a seven hours' fight, on May 7, at Gudsoe. The Danes fell back on Frid- ericia, where they were invested. Meanwhile the German Parliament had met again at Frankfort. After the resignation of the former Austrian chief of the Cabinet, Schmerling, the Parliament was split into two factions, according to their preferences for a Ger- man union with or without Austria. Early in January it had been decided to elect some German prince to assume the leadership of German affairs as Emperor of the Germans. To this plan the minor German sovereigns gave their con- sent. During the first week of March, when the Emperor of Austria issued his new Constitution, which declared the whole of the Austrian Empire under one indivisible con- stitutional monarchy, it was plain to the German delegates that Austria could no longer be reckoned on. On March 28 King Frederick William IV of Prussia was elected by 290 votes. Some 284 delegates, among whom were 100 Aus- trians, abstained from voting. An imperial constitution was adopted which limited the former sovereign rights of the various principalities, declared for the liberties of speech and of the press, religious worship, free public schools, and the total abolition of all feudal titles of nobility. On April 23 the great Parliamentary deputation, with President Simpson at its head, came to Berlin to notify the King of Prussia of his election. To the consternation of all, Frederick William declined the honor. He explained in private that he did not 718 END OF FIRST GERMAN PARLIAMENT care "to accept a crown offered to him by the Revolution." The immediate effects of his rejection were new attempts at revolution in Germany. After Frederick William's re- fusal to enter into the plans of the German Parliament, this body fell into utter disrepute. Its radical elements could no longer be kept in control. Armed revolts, encouraged by the radical delegates, broke out in Frankfort, Kaiserslautern, and throughout Saxony. The King of Saxony, with his Min- isters, Von Beust, and Rabenhorst, fled from Dresden. From the barricades the provisional government was proclaimed. The garrison was at the mercy of the insurgents, great num- bers of whom flocked to Dresden from Leipzig and Pirna. Prussian troops overran Saxony. The revolutionary move- ment spread to Hesse, Baden, the Rhine provinces, Wurtem- burg, and the Bavarian Palatinate. Encounters with the troops occurred at Elbafeldt, Diisseldorf, and Cologne. The reserves and municipal guards sided with the insurgents. All Baden rose and declared itself a Republic, forming an alli- ance with the revolted Palatinate. The people of Wurtem- burg, in a turbulent mass-meeting, demanded coalition with both of these countries. It was then that the Parliament at Frankfort decided to hold its future sessions at Stuttgart. Those principalities which had not yet succumbed to revolu- tion withdrew their delegates. Prussia now gave to the Par- liament its coup de grace by arrogating to herself all further prosecution of the Danish war, on the ground that "the so- called central government of Frankfort had no more weight of its own to affect the balance of peace or war." The rem- nants of the Parliament tried to meet at Stuttgart, under the leadership of Loewe and Ludwig Uhland, the foremost liv- ing poet of Germany. When they came together at their meeting hall they found the doors blocked by troops. At- tempts at protest were drowned by the roll of drums. Under the threat of a volley the delegates dispersed. 719 1849 AUSTRIAN AND RUSSIAN ALLIANCE Prussian troops advanced into the Palatinate, Baden, and Wurtemburg. After desultory encounters with ill-led bands of insurgents, the sovereigns of these principalities were rein- stated on their thrones by the Prussian army. The refugees thronged into Switzerland. In the north, on the other hand, Prussia's further advance into Denmark was stopped by the threatening attitude of England, Russia, and France. On July 3. the Danes made a sortie from Fridericia and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Schleswig-Holsteiners, capturing 28 guns and 1,500 prisoners. Tile Germans lost nearly 3,000 men in dead and wounded. Five days after this disgrace to German arms, the Prus- sian Government accepted an armistice, according to which Schleswig was to be cut in two to be occupied by Swedish and Prussian troops. The provisional government of this province was entrusted to a joint commission, presided over by an Englishman. Holstein w\vas abandoned to its fate. The final downfall of all the ideals of the German Liberals was fol- lowed by a feeling of dejection in Germany akin to despair. The number of immigrants who left Germany to seek new homes in America and elsewhere rose abruptly to 113,000. Worse even than in Germany fared the cause of popular government in Hungary. On the day that Goergey's Hun- garians stormed Ofen (May 21), Emperor Francis Joseph had a personal interview with Czar Nicholas at Warsaw. A joint note announced that the interest of all European States demanded armed interference in Hungary. The Emperor of Russia placed his whole army, under the command of Paskie- vitch, at the disposal of his "dear brother, Francis Joseph." On June 3 the vanguard of the Russian main army occupied Pressburg. Paskievitch called upon all Magyars to submit. Instead of that, Kossuth called upon his countrymen to destroy their homes and property at the approach of the enemy, and to retreat into the interior as did the Russians before Napo- 720 1849 GOERGEY'S SURRENDER loon. The rapid course of military events made this imprac- ticable. While Kossuth and his government retired to Scege- din in the far southeast, Goergey, with the bulk of the army, took post on the upper Danube to prevent the junction of the Austrians and Russians. There the notorious Haynau, who had been recalled from Italy, was in command of the Austrians. While Goergev attacked his left wing on the River Vag, Haynau perfected his junction with the Russians. On June 28 their united forces, 80,000 strong, captured Raab, under the eyes of Francis Joseph. The Russians occu- pied Debreezin, while the Austrians moved on Budapest. Goergey's attempts to stop them resulted only in placing him in a dangerous position between both armies. On the same day that the Austrians reoccupied Budapest, the Hungarians under Vetter succeeded in inflicting another disastrous defeat on Jellacic at Hegyes. Three days later, Goergey won his last victory over the Russians at Waitzen. After this the tide of war turned against Hungary. The united army of Austria and Russia exceeded 225,000 men and 600 guns. The Hun- garian resources were exhausted. In the first week of August the final conclusion of peace between Austria and Sardinia and the victorious movement against Venice put new forces at Austria's disposal. Dembinsky, who was to defend the passage of the Theiss before Scegedin, was defeated, on Au- gust 5, at Czoreg with heavy losses. Kossuth now gave the command to Bem. He fought the last battle of the campaign at Kemmisvar, on August 9, ending in the disastrous defeat of the Hungarians. Bem barely succeeded in saving the remnant of his army by crossing the Moldavian frontier. On August 11 Kossuth at Arad relinquished his dictatorship in favor of General Goergey. This headstrong soldier, in real- ization of his helplessness, led his army of 20,000 foot, 2,000 horse, and 130 guns within the Russian lines at Vilagos and surrendered unconditionally. Goergey's life was spared. 721 la"s FRENCH TROOPS RESTORE POPE Not so those of his foremost fellow prisoners, who were handed over to the tender mercies of Haynau. Goergey's galling explanation that he did not deign to surrender to his despised Austrian adversaries was brutally avenged by Hay- nau. The foremost Magyar officers and statesmen who fell into Austrian hands were court-martialed and shot. Count Batthyany, the former Prime Minister, was hanged as a com- mon felon. Hungary lost all her ancient constitutional rights, besides her former territories of Transylvania and Croatia. The flower of her youth was enrolled in Austrian ranks and dispersed to the most remote garrisons of the Empire. Her civil administration was handed over to German bureaucrats from Austria. The exiled patriots sought refuge in Turkey and in America. The French interference in Rome aroused the Republi- cans in France. While Oudinot was carrying on siege opera- tions against Rome, Ledru-Rollin, in Paris, demanded the impeachment of the Ministry. The rejection of this motion by the Chambers was followed by revolutionary risings at Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, and other cities. Then it was shown that France had a new master. President Louis Na- poleon was on his guard. Large forces of troops, held in readi- ness for this event, put down the insurrections without much trouble. The siege of Rome was pressed to its conclusion. On June 14 Oudinot began his bombardment of Rome. Gari- baldi prolonged his defence until the end of the month. Then, when sufficient breaches had been opened, the French stormed the ramparts and entered Rome. Garibaldi at- tempted to throw his forces into Venice to prolong the war against Austria. With his ever-dwindling followers he was hunted from place to place. In the end, through the devo- tion of Italian patriots, he managed to escape to America. On July 14 the restoration of the Pope's authority over Rome was announced by Oudinot. Pius IX, however, showed no 722 1849 AUSTRIANS ENTER VIENNA inclination to place himself in the power of his protectors. Remaining at Gaeta, he sent a commission of cardinals to take over the government of Rome. Their first act was to restore the Inquisition, and to appoint a court for the trial of all persons implicated in the Roman revolution. Thereat great wrath arose among the Republicans of France. Louis Napoleon felt compromised. In reliance on the growing ascendency of Austria, the Pope insisted on his absolute rights as a sovereign of Rome. All that Pius IX would con- sent to, under the pressure of the French Government, was to suffer his political prisoners to go into exile, and to bestow a small measure of local powers upon the municipalities of the various States. After the fall of Rome and of Hungary no hope remained for Venice. A fortnight after the surrender of Vilagos, and several months after the subjugation of the Venetian main- land, the Republic of St. Mark, reduced by cholera and famine, gave up its long struggle. The Austrians reentered Venice. Having gained a free hand in her Hungarian and Italian dominions, Austria set to work to recover her ascendency in Germany. 723 1849 EVENTS OF 1850 British Fleet Blockades Pirweus to Collect Greece's Debts to English Bankers-France Intervenes and Fleet is Withdrawn-Cholera Dev- astates England and Wales-Deaths of Wordsworth and Peel- First Cable Across English Channel-Koh-i-Noor Presented to Vic- toria-Afghans Reconquer Balkh-Fifth Kaffir War-Death of Chi- nese Emperor Taouk Wang-Accession of Hien Fong-Taiping Re- bellion against Manchu Dynasty-Coolies Emigrate to California -Clay Introduces Omnibus Bill for Admission of California With- out Slavery, Return of Fugitive Slaves, etc.-President Taylor Proclaims against Filibustering Raids on Cuba-United States Recognizes Dominican Republic-Bulwer-Clayton Treaty Forbids Exclusive Interest of Either England or United States in Isthmian Canal-American Fleet Goes to Lisbon to Enforce War Claims- It is Recalled-Webster's Support of Fugitive Slave Law Alienates His Northern Friends-Deaths of Calhoun and President Taylor- Fillmore Becomes President-He Signs Fugitive Slave Law-Pub- lication.of Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" Aids Abolition Cause -Other Notable Books-Parodi and Jenny Lind Make Musical D6- buts in America-Great Fire in Cracow-Danes Crush Schleswig- Holstein Insurrectionists at Idstedt-Deaths of Balzac, Louis Philippe, and Gay-Lussac, the Scientist-Louis Napoleon Restricts Liberty of the Press-Austria Edges into German Affairs-She Calls Bundesrath at Frankfort-It Restores Prince of Hesse, whom His People had Expelled-Prussia Supports Hessian People and Occupies Hesse with Her Troops-Opera-Bouffe Conflict Between Prussian and Austrian Vanguards-Complete Backdown of Prussia at Treaty of Olmtitz-Notable Productions in German Music and Literature-Martyrdom of Mirza Ali Mohamad, Founder of Bab Religion. T the opening of the year the British Foreign Office ,A determined to bring pressure to bear upon Greece for payment of the public debts which were due English bankers. A British squadron, during January, block- aded the Piroeus. On January 17 a resolution was passed in the British House of Lords condemning the foreign policy of the Government in Greece. Later France interposed in be- half of Greece and the blockade was discontinued. Through- out the earlier part of the year the scourge of cholera continued in England. In London alone the death-rate for a while was 1,000 per week. More than 50,000 people died from the epidemic in England and Wales. 724 DEATH OF WORDSWORTH William Wordsworth, the English Poet Laureate, died on April 23, at Rydal Mount. Born at Cockermouth in 1770, Wordsworth received his academic education at Cambridge University. His early poems brought the appreciation of Coleridge, and the men soon became friends. Together with Wordsworth's sister they made a tour of Germany. On their return, Wordsworth brought out the first volume of his "Lyrical Ballads," which won great popularity. After his marriage in 1803, Wordsworth settled at Grasmere in the lake country, where he was joined by Southey and Coleridge. This caused the writings of all three to be classified under the generic title of "The Lake School of Poetry" by the "Ed- inburgh Review." The fame of Wordsworth's poetic pro- ductions, and especially of his sonnets, slowly grew. While he won the immediate approbation of his countrymen by some of his stirring patriotic pieces, his strongest appeal to the world at large and to future generations lay in his poetic appreciation of the beauties of nature and of the essential traits of human character. The next noted death in England this year was that of Sir Robert Peel, who was fatally injured by being thrown from his horse. A monument to his memory was erected in Westminster Abbey; but in accordance with his own wish he was buried in the village churchyard of Drayton Bassett. Of other events arousing interest in England, the most note- worthy was the laying of the first submarine electric tele- graph between England and France. Messages were interchanged, but the cable soon parted. During the same year the great East Indian diamond, Koh-i-noor, was pre- sented to Queen Victoria. The history of this great jewel was more stirring, in its way, than that of any living man. Its original weight was nearly 800 carats. By the lack of skill of the European diamond cutters this was reduced to 270 carats. 725 1850 THE TAIPING REBELLION Beyond the immediate shores of England the course of events kept the British Colonial Office fully occupied. In Canada a movement arose for the annexation of British America to the United States. Earl Grey, the Colonial Secretary, took occasion to warn all Canadians against this movement as an act of high treason. In India the Afghans succeeded in reconquering Balkh. The fifth Kaffir war broke out in South Africa. The affairs of China gave fresh con- cern. On February 24 Emperor Taouk Wang died in his sixty-ninth year. The thirty years during which he reigned were among the most eventful, and in some respects the most portentous, for China. His strenuous opposition to the evils of the opium trade mark him as a wise, if not a powerful, ruler. Taouk Wang's end was hastened by the outbreak of a great fire in Pekin, which threatened the imperial city with destruction. From his deathbed he proclaimed his fourth son, Yihchoo, ruler of the Empire. Prince Yihchoo, who was less than twenty years old, took the name of Hien Fong, which means great abundance, and immediately upon his accession drew to his aid his four younger brothers, a new departure in Manchu rule. Their uncle, Hlwuy Wang, who had made one attempt to seize the throne from his brother Taouk Wang, once more put forward his pretensions. After the imperial Ministers, Kiaying and Muchangah, had been degraded, Hwuy Wang's attempt signally failed, but his life was spared. Later in the year, as a result partly of poor harvests, the great Taiping rebellion began. The great secret society of the Triads started the movement by raising an out- cry in southern China against the Manchus. Their leader, Hung Tsiuen, a Hakka or Romany, proclaimed himself as Tien Wang, which means the head of the Prince. Under the cloud of the impending upheaval, Chinese coolies in great numbers began to emigrate to the United States. At the same time the bitter feeling against foreigners was intensified 726 1850 THE "OMDNIBUS BILL1 by an encounter of the British steamship "Media" with a fleet of piratical Chinese junks. Thirteen of the junks were destroyed. In California, where most of the Chinese immigrants landed, this movement was scarcely considered in the heat of the discussion whether California should be admitted into the Union as a pro-slavery or anti-slavery State. In the Amer- ican Senate Henry Clay introduced a bill for a compromise of the controversy on slavery. His proposal favored the ad- mission of California as a free State. On Mtarch T Daniel Webster delivered a memorable speech in which he antago- nized his anti-slavery friends in the North. This was de- nounced as the betrayal of his constituents. State Conven- tions in South Carolina called for a Southern Congress to voice their claims. Not long afterward a fugitive slave bill was adopted by the United States Congress. A fine of 1,000 and six months' imprisonment was to be imposed on any person harboring a fugitive slave or aiding him to escape. Fugitives were to be surrendered on demand, without the benefit of testimony or trial by jury. This served to ter- rorize some 20,000 escaped slaves and created intense in- dignation in the North. The issues were still more sharply drawn by the resignation of Jefferson Davis from the Senate, to run as a State-rights candidate for Governor of Mississippi. His Unionist rival, Foote, was elected. In the meanwhile trouble had arisen with Spain and Portugal. On May 19 General Narcisso Lopez, with 600 American filibusters, landed at Cardenas to liberate Cuba from the dominion of Spain. He was defeated and his ex- pedition dispersed. Another Cuban expedition was agitated in America. On April 25 President Taylor felt constrained to issue a second proclamation against filibusters. In May the United States, in conjunction with Great Britain, rec- ognized the independence of the Dominican Republic. Both 727 1850 DEATH OF PRESIDENT TAYLOR countries at the same time agreed not to interfere in the affairs of Central America. In accordance with this agree- ment the famous Buiver-Clayton Treaty was completed. It provided that neither country should obtain exclusive control over any interoceanic canal in Central America, nor erect fortifications along its line. In June an American squadron -was sent to Portugal to support the United States demand for American war claims of 1812. The claims were refused and the American Minister was recalled from Lisbon. The American fleet was withdrawn without further hostile demon- strations. The American President, in pursuance of his policy of peace, proclaimed neutrality in the civil war which had arisen in Mexico. The furious slavery debate was resumed when Clay's so- called "Omnibus Bill" was offered for final consideration. On July 9 Webster soothed the angry passions of the legisla- tors when he announced that President Taylor was dying. Webster's support of the Compromise Act of 1850, with its fugitive slave bill, dimmed his Presidential prospects. It was then that Whittier wrote the scathing lines entitled "Ichabod," and beginning: "So fallen! so lost! the light withdrawn Which once he wore! The glory from his gray hairs gone For evermore !" John Caldwell Calhoun, after a final speech on the issues of the country, died on the last day of March. He was the most prominent advocate of State sovereignty. He was noted for his keen logic, his clear statements and demonstra- tions of facts, and his profound earnestness. On July 9 President Taylor died, and Vice-President Fillmore succeeded him. The new chief executive received the resignations of all the Cabinet. His new Cabinet was headed by Webster, Secretary of State (succeeded by Everett in 1852). The new fugitive slave bill was signed by Fill- 728 1850 BATTLE OF IDSTEDT more. But the law was defied in the North as unconstitu- tional. Benton called the measure "the complex, cumbersome, expensive, annoying, and ineffective fugitive slave law." Fillmore and Webster came to be looked upon in the North as traitors to the anti-slavery cause. But for this Fillmore would have had a fair chance of reelection to the Presidency. Then appeared in the "National Era" at Washington the opening chapters of Harriet Beecher Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin." A million copies of the book were sold in America and in Europe. It spread and intensified the feeling against slavery. Emerson published "Representative Men"; Haw- thorne "The Scarlet Letter"; and Whittier brought out his "Songs of Labor." Parodi, the Italian singer, made her first appearance in America. She was eclipsed presently by Jenny Lind, whose opening concert at Castle Garden in New York netted 30,000 to her manager, Barnum. Under the stress of another Mohammedan rising against the Christians in Syria and the Balkans, Emperor Nicholas of Russia decreed a notable increase of the Russian army. Out of every thousand persons in the population seven men were mustered into the ranks in western Russia, thus adding some 180,000 men to the total strength of the Russian force. In midsummer the city of Cracow, in Poland, was nearly destroyed by fire. Later in the year occurred the death, in Turkey, of the Polish general Bem, who had won such dis- tinction while serving the cause of Hungary. Another at- tempt to win Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark was made in summer. Unaided by the Germans, the Schleswig-Hol- steiners, under the leadership of Willisen, a former Prussian general and distinguished theoretical strategist, engaged a superior Danish army at Idstedt. They were beaten. Prus- sia, discouraged, abandoned the struggle in their behalf. The death of Honor6 de Balzac, the celebrated French novelist, was an event in literature. Born at Tours in 1799, 729 18SO DEATH OF LOUIS PHILIPPE he soon devoted himself to writing. The major part of his striking, realistic novels was published in the famous series "La Com6die Humaine." Altogether, Balzac brought out more than a hundred prose romances. They contain the most graphic pictures of the life of the French people under Louis Philippe. Balzac said of himself that he described people as they were, while others described them as they should be. On his death Victor Hugo delivered the funeral oration, while Alexandre Dumas, his rival throughout life, erected a monument to him with his own means. One week later Louis Philippe, the deposed King of France, died at Claremont in England, in his seventy-seventh year. His career, from the time that he followed the exam- ple of his father, Philippe Egalit4, by fighting the battles of the Revolution, and through the vicissitudes of his exile until he became King in 1830, was replete with stirring episodes. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, the great French chemist and physicist, died during the same year. Born at Saint-Leonard, Haut-Vienne, in 1788, Gay-Lussac distinguished himself early in his career as a scientist by his aerial voyages in com- pany with Biot for the observation of atmospheric phenomena at great heights. In 1816 he was appointed Professor of Chemistry at the Polvtechnic School of Paris, a chair which he held until 1832. Promoted to a professorship at the Wardin des Plantes, Gay-Lussac labored there incessantly until his death. There is scarcely a branch of physical or chemical science to which Gay-Lussac did not contribute some important discovery. He is noted chiefly for his experi- ments with gases and for the discovery of the law of combination by volumes. Louis Napoleon, while administering affairs as Presi- dent, began to let France feel his power. Early in the year he created his incapable unele, Jerome Bonaparte, a marshal of France. On August 15 his Napoleonic aspirations were 730 1850 AUSTRIA LEADS IN GERPMAN AFFAIRS encouraged by a grand banquet tendered to him at Lyons. His government felt strong enough to enact new measures for the restriction of the liberty of the press. In Germany, as well as in Austria and Russia, similar reactionary measures were enforced. Frederick William IV of Prussia for a while appeared anxious to undo the effects of his narrow policy of the previous year. A constitution had been adopted in Prussia on the last day of January, and on February 6 the King took the constitutional oath. Aus- tria now began to edge her way back into the management of German affairs. Under her influence Hanover withdrew from the alliance of the three North German Powers, Han- over, Saxony, and Prussia. Later Saxony also withdrew. On February 27 the Kings of Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and Saxony signed a joint agreement for a restoration of the German Confederation and a maintenance of the federal union. The Emperor of Austria gave to this scheme his full support. When the Bundestag met again at Frankfort, Austria in- sisted on her rights as a German State. Too late the Prus- sian representative advocated a German federal State, with Austria excluded. The disastrous failure of Prussian inter- vention in Schleswig-Holstein about this time brought Prus- sia into further disrepute with the rest of Germany. Eng- land, France, and Sweden united to guarantee the integrity of Denmark. Prussia left the Duchies to their fate. On July 19 Austria called for another assembly of the old Con- federation. Prussia and her adherents could not join. On August 17 the German sovereigns met on the call of Austria at Frankfort to consider a plan of federal union. The old Bundestag was reopened at Frankfort on September 2, uinder the auspices of Austria. Prussia clung to her rival federal union. A bone of contention was furnished by the little State of Hesse. The Archduke of Hesse, the most reaction- ary of German princes, had resumed his rule with the help 731 1850 THE CLASH OVER HESSE of his hated Prime Minister, Hassenpflug. The financial budget of this Minister was disapproved by the Hessian Estates. Hassenpflug now dissolved the Assembly and pro- ceeded to levy taxes without its sanction. The people refused to pay. The courts decided against the Government, Even the soldiers and their officers declined to lift a finger against the people. In the face of this resolute attitude the Prince and his Minister fled the country on September 12, and appealed to the new Bundestag at Frankfort for help. The restoration of the Archduke to his throne was decreed. Prussia now took a decided stand. On September 26 General von Radowitz, the originator of the North German Union, was placed at the head of Prussia's foreign affairs. He declared for the cause of the people in Hesse. The Prus- sian troops were withdrawn from Baden over the military roads leading through Hesse. To meet this situation, Fran- cis Joseph of Austria, in October, had a personal interview with the Kings of Bavaria and of Wurtemburg at Bregenz. It was decided to crowd the Prussians out of Baden and Hesse by moving Bavarian and Austrian troops into those countries. Another personal conference between Francis Joseph and Czar Nicholas at Warsaw assured to Austria the support of :Russia. In vain did Frederick William send his cousin, Count Brandenburg, to wvin over the Czar to his side. Count Brandenburg met with so hanghty a reception that he returned chagrined, and, falling ill, died soon afterward. Both Austria and Prussia mobilized their armies. At Vienna the Austrian Prime Minister avowed to the Ambas- sador of France that it was his policy "to debase Prussia, then to destroy her." On November 8 the vanguards of the Prussian and Austrian troops exchanged shots. The single casualty of a bugler's horse served only to tickle the German sense of humor. The Prussians retired without further en- counters. Radowitz resigned his Ministry. Otto von Man- 732 1850 RISE OF WAGNER IN MUSIC teuffel was put in charge. On November 21 the Austrian Ambassador at Berlin, Prince Schwarzenberg, demanded the evacuation of Hesse within forty-eight hours. Prussia gave in. Manteuffel requested the favor of a personal interview at Olmiitz. Without awaiting Austria's reply he posted thither. In a treaty signed at Olmiitz late in the year, Prus- sia agreed to withdraw her troops from Baden and Hesse, and to annul her military conventions with Baden, Anhalt, Mecklenburg, and Brunswick. Thus miserably ended Prus- sia's first attempt to exclude Austria from the affairs of Ger- many. As heretofore, the Prussian-Polish provinces of Posen and Silesia were excluded from the Confederation. Austria, on the other hand, tried to bring her subjected provinces in Italy and Hungary into the Germanic Confederation. Against this proposition, repugnant to most Germans, France and England lodged so vigorous a protest that the plan was abandoned. The Elector of Hesse-Cassel returned to his capital. Under the protection of the federal bayonets he was able to bring his wretched subjects to complete subjection. German ability was now diverted from political agitation to belles-lettres and music. Georg Gottfried Gervinus, the historian, who had taken so active a part in the attempted reorganization of Germany, turned from history to purely literary studies. It was then that he wrote his celebrated "Study of Shakespeare." Richard Wagner, who had escaped arrest only by fleeing from Dresden, gave uip active composi- tion to write pamphlets and essays, and published his re- markable essay on "The Revolution and the Fine Arts." In the meanwhile, Franz Liszt at Weimar brought out Wag- ner's new operas "Lohengrin" and "Tannhiuser." In this year MIirza Ali Mohamad, the great founder of the new Bab religion in Persia, suffered martyrdom. The cult which he founded, says Denison Ross, the Persian scholar, "is destined to become a formidable rival to Islam." 733 I850 EVENTS OF 1851 Louis Napoleon Dissolves Assembly-Death of Spontini, the Composer- Celebration of 150th Anniversary of Prussian Monarchy-Austria Replaces Prussian Troops Departing from Schleswig-Holstein with Her Own-Conference of Ministers at Berlin Orders Reestablish- ment of Old Diet of the Confederacy-This Meets at Frankfort- Dreibund of Russia, Austria, and Prussia Formed at Olmiitz-Em- eror Assumes Absolute Power in Austria-Austria Aids Turkey in suppressing Revolt in Bosnia-British Annex Orange River Colony -In Reprisal for Injuries to Her Merchants Great Britain Bombards Rangoon and Other Cities in Burma, and Annexes Province of Pegu -Discovery of Gold in Australia Draws Many Immigrants-Victoria Separates from New South Wales-First World's Fair Opens in Crystal Palace, London-Duke of Saldanha Leads Successful Revo- lution in Portugal and Becomes Premier-General Urquiza Raises Siege of Montevideo and Becomes Dictator-Chilean Government Crushes Revolts of Ourriola and Cruz-Railways Constructed in ERypt and Russia-Lopez and His Cuban Filibusters are Shot- His American Followers are Pardoned by the Queen-Yacht "Amer- ica" Wins Cup at Cowes-Kossuth Visits America-Is Enthusiasti- cally Received-Deaths of Audubon, the Naturalist, Gallaudet, the Deaf-Mute Educator, and Cooper, the Novelist-Notable American Books-Tennyson is Made Laureate-Deaths of Mrs. Shelley, the Author, and Turner, the Painter-Deaths of Marshals Sebastiani and Soult-Louis Napoleon Executes His Coup d'Etat, Abolishing Assembly, and Ordering Plebescite-Street Risings are Suppressed and Republican Leaders Shot and Exiled-Louis Napoleon is Elected President for Ten Years with Dictatorial Powers. RESIDENT LOUIS NAPOLEON'S growing mas- tery of France was revealed early in the year. On January 3, as a result of his restrictions of the liberty of the press, the Ministry had to resign. The President de- prived General Changarnier, a pronounced Republican, of the command of the Paris garrison, and dissolved the Assem- bly, which might have objected to these measures. Gasparo Spontini, the celebrated Italian composer, died on January 24, at his birthplace in Ancona province. In Germany King William IV at Berlin celebrated the 150th anniversary of the Prussian monarchy on January 18. A colossal statue of Frederick the Great was made for this occasion by the sculptor Christian Rauch. At the same time a further humiliation upon Prussia was inflicted by the occupa- tion of Schleswig-Holstein by Austrian troops, who came to 734 THE DREBB U 15D put a definite stop to hostilities in these provinces. In De- cember, 1850, a conference of Ministers had been held at Dresden, at which Prussia was represented by Baron Lamsi- kell, while Prince Felix Schwarzenberg appeared for Austria. With the powerful backing of Russia, Austria could force the hand of Prussia into reacceptance of the old order of things. As if to emphasize this, old Prince Metternich made his reap- pearance in Vienna as if nothing had happened. The con- ference ordered the return of the old Diet of the confederacy. On May 30 the Confederate Diet met at Frankfort. Baron Bismarck was appointed as a delegate from Prussia. On the day after the opening of the Diet, the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia met at Olmiitz to renew the former alli- ance of these countries. A period of reaction set in. The Prussian Constitution was modified. The Emperor of Aus- tria began to undo the reforms granted by the Liberal Con- stitution of 1849. On August 20 he arrogated to himself absolute powers in a series of Cabinet letters, in which he declared that his Ministers were "responsible to no other po- litical authority than the throne," while the Reichsrath was to be merely "considered as the council of the throne." About this time another popular rising occurred in Bosnia. A Turk- ish army was sent to suppress it, and Austrian troops took up their station on the frontier. In England some of the most troublesome foreign com- plications, as often before, first came up for settlement in the Colonial Office. Thus, in March a British force under Sir Harry Smith defeated a commando of Boers at Boomplaatz. Other Boer forces were dispersed. The British flag was hoisted beyond the Orange River and the annexation of that territory to Great Britain was accomplished. In India war was renewed with the King of Burma. As usual, the trouble started with complaints of the British mer- chants at Rangoon calling for the protection of their country. 735 1851 DISCOVERY OF GOLD IN AUSTRALIA Lord Dalhousie sent Commodore Lambert to Rangoon on the "Fox." Lambert seized one of the ships of the Burmese King lying in the river, promising to restore it on receipt of 10,000 rupees as compensation for the injured mer- chants. In reply the Burmese opened fire on the "Fox." Now all Burmese ports were declared in a state of blockade. Lord Dalhousie sent nineteen steamers and 6,000 men to Rangoon under General Godwin. Rangoon was captured after a heavy cannonade. Its capture was followed by that of Bassie on the Irawaddy, and Prome. The whole of Pegu was annexed to the British Empire. In Australia great excitement was created by the dis- covery of gold in various places. As early as February gold was found in New South Wales by returned gold seekers from California. A great number of immigrants rushed into that province. In July a squatter on Meroo Creek found a mass of virgin gold weighing above a hundred pounds. There- upon the famous gold fields of Ballarat were opened in Vic- toria. In October gold discoveries were made near Mel- bourne surpassing all others. As a result of the great tide of immigration that swept into Victoria that province sep- arated itself from New South Wales. Melbourne became the capital of Victoria. In England, throughout the summer, a great international exposition in the so-called "Crystal Palace" erected on Hyde Park attracted visitors from far and wide. A special ode by Alfred Tennyson was sung at the opening. In Portugal another outbreak of the persistent conflict between the Septembrists and Cabralists broke out in April. An insurrection in Oporto declared for the fugitive Duke of Saldanha. On April 29 he arrived at Oporto. The move- ment assumed such threatening proportions that Queen Maria da Gloria dismissed Count Thomar de Costa Cabral, and made Saldanha Prime Minister. 736 Ias BATTLE OF LONGAMILLA In Portugal's former colonial possessions a civil war, no less wearing, was maintained. On October 2 General U)rquiza, of the Argentine Republic, having joined forces with Brazil and Montevideo, compelled General Oribe to capitulate at Montevideo. This ended the nine years' investment of Mon- tevideo. Later in the year General Urquiza overthrew Gen- eral Rosas at Montevideo and proclaimed himself military dictator. In Chile, about the same time that a violent earthquake wrecked more than 400 houses at Valparaiso, a military insurrection broke out under Colonel Ourriola. In a sharp engagement between the Government troops and the insurgents Ourriola, with 300 of his followers, was killed. The insurrection was prolonged by General Jose Maria de la Cruz. Between 4,000 and 5,000 men were killed in the des- ultory engagements that followed. At last the revolt was crushed by the decisive defeat of General Cruz in the battle of Longamilla. In China the threatening Taiping rebellion gathered force. In Siam the unusual spectacle was beheld of the si- multaneous enthronement of two kings as rulers of that coun- try. The progress of modern civilization was attested by the opening of a steam railway in Egypt between the cities of Cairo and Alexandria. In Russia, too, a straight line of rail- road was laid over the long stretch between St. Petersburg and Moscow. The fears of unpleasant complications between the United States and Spain, by reason of Cuban filibustering expedi- tions, were allayed by a general pardon extended to the Amer- ican filibusters on the part of the Queen of Spain. On August 11 Lopez had landed with more filibusters in Cuba. He was captured shortly after his landing and was shot.. The same fate was shared by his Cuban followers. Only to the Ameri- can adventurers who accompanied the expedition did the Spanish Queen's pardon apply. An event of joyful interest 737 1851 1851 DEATHS OF MRS. SHELLEY AND TURNER to Americans was the victory of the American schooner-yacht "America" over all her English competitors in the yacht races at Cowes on October 22. She carried off the trophy of an in- ternational cup, which, under the name of the America's Cup, was destined to remain beyond the reach of English racing yachts throughout the rest of the century. Not long after this the visit of two distinguished Europeans excited general interest in America. One was Lola Montez, the famous Span- ish dancer, whose relations with King Louis I of Bavaria had resulted in the loss of his crown. The other was Louis Kos- suth, the Hungarian patriot, who had been brought from England on an American vessel. His reception in America surpassed even that which had been accorded to him in Eng- land. During this same year in America occurred the deaths of Audubon, the great naturalist; Gallaudet, the benefactor of deaf-mutes, and James Fenimore Cooper, the novelist. About the time of Cooper's death, Francis Parkman pub- lished his "Conspiracy of Pontiac," Longfellow his "Golden Legend," while Nathaniel Hawthorne brought out "The House of the Seven Gables." In England Alfred Tennyson had been selected as the worthiest successor of William Wordsworth in the office of Poet Laureate. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, daughter of Godwin and wife of the poet Shelley, died during this year. She wrote some half dozen novels and stories, the best of which was "Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus." The weird story, which was written in 1816 in a spirit of friendly rivalry with Shelley and Byron, achieved great popularity. This was largely by reason of the originality of the author's conception of the artificial creation of a human monster which came to torment its maker. Joseph M. W. Turner, the most celebrated English artist of the nineteenth century, died in this same year. At the 738 DEATHS OF SEBASTIANI AND SOULT outset of the nineteenth century he achieved a national repli- tation by his "Battle of the Nile," but did not reach the apotheosis of his fame until Ruskin sang his praises. In France Marshal Horace Frangois Sebastiani, one of the favorites of Napoleon the Great, died on July 21 at Paris. Sebastiani was a Corsican like Napoleon. He was identified with his great countryman's career from beginning to end. A soldier of fortune, like his illustrious chief, he distinguished himself chiefly by his Machiavellian talents for diplomacy. It was he who stirred up Napoleon's first war with England by his famous mission to the East to lay bare England's weakness in that quarter. B3y his machinations at Constantinople, at one time he embroiled both England and Russia with Turkey, when such a diversion came most wel- come to Napoleon, who was then fighting on the frontiers of Poland. Soon after Sebastiani, Marshal Soult died at Clii- teau St. Amans, on November 26, in his eighty-second year. The death of this distinguished Marshal-General of France served to recall some of the brightest glories of Napoleonic days. Born in 1769 at St. Amans-la-Bastide, Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult joined the royal army of France at the age of sixteen. He served as a sous-lieutenant under Marshals Luk- ner and IJstine, and so distinguished himself that he soon won his steps and was attached as adjutant-general to Mar- shal Lefebvre's staff. As a brigadier-general he turned the tide of victory at the battle of Fluress. After this he was entrusted with the command of a division, and took part in all the campaigns in Germany, and through the Swiss and Italian campaigns waged by Massena. In a sortie from Genoa he was taken prisoner. Set at liberty after the battle of Marengo, he returned to France at the peace of Amiens, and was made one of the four colonels of the guard of the consuls. From this point his career has already been de- scribed in these pages. 739 1851 LOUIS NAPOLEON'S COUP D'ETAT BY the time of Marshal Soult's death, the storm that arose over Louis Napoleon's abrupt removal of Changarnier had been suppressed with a firm hand. The majority in the As- sembly who voted for a revision of the Constitution was found to be ninety-seven less than the three-fourths required, and all further opposition of the Assembly against Louis Napoleon's measures was denounced as factious. Maupas, the obsequious Chief of Police, discovered dangerous plots against the Government and against the person of the Presi- dent. Fears of possible Napoleonic aspirations had been silenced by Louis Napoleon's energetic protests. Such was the situation on the eve of December 2. As Victor Hugo put it, in the opening chapter of his "History of a Crime": "People had long suspected Louis Bonaparte; but long con- tinued suspicion blunts the intellect and it wears itself out by fruitless alarms." On December 1 the session of the Assembly was devoted to a discussion on municipal law. It terminated with a peaceful tribunal vote. Prince Louis Napoleon held an informal reception at the Elyses. During that night, Louis Napoleon, in complicity with the bastard princes, De Morny, Valevsky, Saint-Arnaud, Persigny, Mau- pas, and others, having made sure of the commanding officers of the troops on duty, caused the arrest before daylight of all the leading Republicans. It was alleged afterward that Colonel Espinasse, who was in charge of the soldiers stationed at the Legislative Palace, received 100,000 francs and the promise of a general's rank for his part in the affair. At the stroke of five in the morning, columns of soldiery filed out of all the Paris barracks and occupied the command- ing positions where barricades had been thrown up in former times. At the same time a score of detectives in closed car- riages apprehended the leading members of the Assembly. The Government printing establishment and all the news- paper offices were occupied by troops. Soldiers were placed 740 1851 z 0 This page in the original text is blank. "BOXED UP" at the side of the printers, who were then ordered to set up a series of proclamations. Before six in the morning bands of bill stickers, hired for the occasion, posted them up all over Paris. At breakfast time, when sixteen deputies and seventy- eight citizens had been arrested and were held secure, the Duke of ICorny reported the success of the undertaking to Louis Napoleon with the two words: "Boxed up." Louis Na- poleon hereupon issued the following decree in the name of the French people: "Article I.-The National Assembly is dissolved. "II.-Universal suffrage is reestablished. The law of May 31 is abrogated. "III.-The French People are convoked in their elec- toral districts from the 14th December to the 21st December following. "IV.-The State of Siege is decreed in the district of the first Military Division. "V.-The Council of State is dissolved. "VI.-The Minister of the Interior is charged with the execution of this decree. "Given at the Palace of the Elyse, 2d December, 1851. "Louis NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. "DEs MoRNY, Minister of the Interior." Together with this decree Louis Napoleon issued an ap- peal to the people in which he justified his proclamation by denouncing the Assembly as "a focus of conspiracies." "I constitute," he continued, "the whole people a judge between it and me." During the same day the Assembly was dissolved by troops. Attempts at public protests were roughly suppressed. A few barricades were thrown up, but the crowds were quickly dispersed, and those agitators who were caught were hur XIXth Century-Vol. 11-14 741 1851 1851 ELECTORATE CONFIRMS THE COUP D'ITAT ried off to prison. On December 4 the troops were ordered out in force, and proceeded to clear the streets. Nearly 1, 00 persons were shot during the course of the day. The insur- rection was stamped out. A few days later, when the Na- tional Assembly tried to meet again, 180 members were ar- rested. Then appeared two parallel lists of names. One contained the names of those who could be counted on for the purposes of Prince Napoleon. They were all created members of a consultative committee, which was to sit "until the reorganization of the legislative party." The other list contained the names of those who were exiled "for the sake of public safety." Among them were Victor Hugo, Thiers, Baune, Laboulaye, Theodore Bac, and Lamarque. Other Republicans were summarily shot in the barrack courtyards. On December 21 the result of the so-called popular pleb- iscite was announced. Louis Napoleon had been elected President for ten years by an alleged vote of 7,473,431 ayes against 641,341 nays. He was clothed with monarchical power and was authorized to issue a constitution for France. Outside of France the results of the coup d'ctat were received with equanimity. Pius IX went to a review held by Gen- eral G6meau in Rome and begged him to congratulate Prince Louis Napoleon for him. Lord Palmerston in London, it was stated, told the French Ambassador that he "entirely ap- proved of what had been done, and thought the President of the French fully justified." The British Ambassador at Paris was instructed to make no change in his relations with the French Government, and to do nothing that might wear the appearance of English interference. It appeared that Lord Palmerston had once more acted on his own initiative. He was requested to resign. Before long the dismissed Minister had an opportunity of showing the Government how formidable an adversary he could be. 742 EVENTS OF 1852 Louis Napoleon is Clothed with Autocratic Powers by New Constitution -He Confiscates Orleans Estates-He Establishes Censorship of Press-Emperor of Austria Abolishes Trial by Jury-Germany Es- tablishes Tariff Union with Russia-Postal and Telegraph Union Between German States-Conference of Powers at London Assures Independence of Neuchatel and Integrity of Danish Monarchy-It Assigns Danish Throne to Christian of Sonderburg-Glieksburg-De- cision is Not Recognized by German Confederation-German Fleet is Sold at Auction-Death of Froebel, the Educator-Granville Suc- ceeds Palmerston in British Foreign Office-He Apologizes for Brit- ish "Empress" Firing into American "Prometheus"-French and English Authors Denounce Louis Napoleon-British Acknowledge Independence of Transvaal at Sand River Convention-South Afri- can Colonists War with Negroes-Taiping Rebels March Northward Through China-They Capture Yoochow and Other Cities Urquiza Ends Civil War in Argentina by Capture of Buenos Ayres-He Becomes Dictator-He Acknowledges Independence of Paraguay- Buenos Ayres Revolts Urquiza lockades City, but Withdraws upon Success of His Partizan in Counter-Revolution Within the City-Death of Gogol-Palmerston Defeats Ministry on Army Bill -Earl of Derby Becomes Prime Minister-Dispute with America Over Newfoundland Fisheries-Franklin Pierce Elected President- Deaths of Clay, Webster, and the Elder Booth-Deaths of Moore, the Irish Poet, and of Wellington-Gladstone Worsts Disraeli in Debate on Finance-Aberdeen Forms a New Ministrv of "All the Talents"-Another Plebiscite Authorizes Louis Napoleon's Imperial Designs-Hle Takes Title of Napoleon Il-Organization of Credit Mobilier-Nicholas I Refuses to Recognize Napoleon III-France and Russia Contest for Custody of Holy Sepulchre Sultan Awards It to France. O N the first day of January Louis Napoleon was re- installed as President of France in the Cathedral of Notre Dame. The day was made a public holi- day. On New Year's Eve the Diplomatic Corps had con- gratulated Prince Napoleon at the Palace of the Tuileries A few days later some of the more prominent of the Presi- dent's opponents, among them Changarnier and Lamorciere, were conducted to the Belgian frontier. On January 10 the President banished eighty-three members of the Legislative Assembly. Some 600 persons who had been arrested for re- sisting the coup d'e[at at the same time were taken to Havre for transportation to Cayenne. On January 14 the new Con- stitution was made public. All real powers were vested in 743 1852 TYRANNICAL ACTS OF LOUIS NAPOLEON the President. He had the initiative for all new measures, as well as the veto on deliberations of both Senate and 'egisla- tive Assemblv. The Senators were to be appointe by him. The sessions of both bodies were to be held behind closed doors. The impotence of the legislators was offset by their princely salaries. Senators were to receive 30,000 francs per year, while the Deputies drew half that sum. The actual sessions of the Legislature were limited to three years. The President was to draw an annual salary of 12,000,000 francs. The money for these expenditures was raised by extraordi- nary means. A decree on January 22 confiscated all former crown lands and the estates of the Princes of' Orleans. The press was gagged by a decree prohibiting the publication of any newspaper without the sanction of the Government. All liberty poles were chopped down, and the motto "Libert6, Fraternit6, Egalit6," was tabooed. On February 29 the elec- tions for the Legislative Assembly were held. The Govern- ment nominated all the candidates, and practically all were elected. Late in March Prince Louis Napoleon opened the Senate and Corps Legislatif. His address throughout was couched in the language of a monarch. While he conceded the intention of the republican reforms to be harmless, he suggested the possibility that he might be called upon "to demand from France in the interest of peace a new title, by which the powers that have been conferred upon me may be confirmed once for all." A Cabinet was formed of the Presi- dent's most devoted followers, under the nominal leadership of Persigny. One of the first votes of the Legislature, after fixing the President's salary, was a grant of 80,000,000 francs for public works wherewith to occupy the laboring classes. This done, the President made a triumphal tour of France. In Austria Emperor Francis Joseph further undid the work of the recent revolution by his total abolition of the rights of trial by jury on January 15. Shortly afterward 744 CONFERENCE OF POWERS AT LONDON Prince Felix Schwarzenberg, the Prime Minister, died in Vienna. He was succeeded by Count Buol von Schauenstein. Throughout the year the affairs in Germany were tran- quil. Shortly after the death of the old King of Hanover, a tariff union was -established with Russia, while a postal and telegraph union was extended to all the German States. Early in the year the King of Prussia revived the old Council of State as it was before 1848. The Constitution underwent new modifications. In May a conference of the great Powers met at London to treat of certain German affairs. An agree ment was signed practically assuring the independence of the Swiss district of Neuchatel, which had revolted from Prussia in 1848. Three days later, on May 8, a protocol was signed concerning the Danish succession. This intricate problem continued to vex the souls of diplomats. Lord Palmerston, when interrogated about it, said that there were only three persons who understood the Danish succession. One was the Queen Dowager of Denmark, the second was God Almighty, and the third was a German professor, but he had gone mad. While attempting to settle the terms of the succession the five great Powers and Sweden signed a treaty guaranteeing the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The throne was granted to Christian of Sonderburg-Gliieksburg. Christian, Duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, consented to surrender his rights for a money consideration. The treaty was not recognized by the German Confederation, but was accepted by Hanover, Sax- ony, and Wurtemburg. In June Germans had the humiliat- ing experience of seeing their fleet, the formation of which was undertaken in 1848, sold at public auction. All aspira- tions for sea power had been abandoned by the Bund. In July Prussia's representative at the Bund meetings, Baron Bismarck, was sent as envoy to Austria. Through his efforts at Vienna the Austrian Government was prevailed upon to join the German Zollverein and to sign commercial treaties. 745 1852 SAND RIVER CON VENTION During this year in Germany Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel, the German educator, died at iMarienthal on July 21, in his seventieth year. He developed a system which has become famous under the name of Kindergarten (children's garden). In England the dismissal of Lord Palmerston left the Foreign Office in an embarrassing position as regarded Louis Napoleon's government. Other embarrassments were like- wise bequeathed. Thus, on January 10, Lord Palmerston's successor, Lord Granville, had to disavow to the American Minister the act of the British man-of-war "Empress," which had fired into the American steamer "Prometheus." Eng- land offered an apology, which was accepted. The caustic comments of the English press on French affairs, together with the free utterances of Victor Hugo and other French exiles on English soil, gave offence to Louis Napoleon. Count Valevski's diplomatic protests found sup- port in the British House of Lords. It was then that Alfred Tennyson, undeterred by the supposed reserve of his Poet- Laureateship, wrote the invective lines entitled "The Third of February." About the same time Thackeray brought out his "His- tory of Henry Esmond," a masterpiece of English historical fiction. In South Africa, at the Sand River Convention on Janu- ary 17, the British virtually accepted the independence of the Transvaal. In the meanwhile the war with the Kaffirs was prosecuted by Sir George Cathcart. Incidentally a crush- ing defeat was inflicted on the Basutos at Guerea. Toward the close of the year the situation grew so alarming that mar- tial law was proclaimed by the Governor of Cape Colony. All inhabitants were bidden to the frontier for the defence of the colonies. In China the Taiping rebellion grew ever more threaten- ing. Early in the year Tien Wang, the pretender to the im- 746 1852 CIVIL WAR INr ARGENTINA perial throne, decided to march out of Kmaysi to invade the vast untouched provinces of Central China. The rebels now became known as Taipings, after a town of that name in Kwangsi province. Tien Wang began his northern march in April. Irritated by the conduct of Tien Wang's lieutenants, the Triads took a secret departure and made peace with the Imperialists. Their secession put an end to the purpose of at- tacking Canton, which Tien Wang had cherished, and he made an assault on Kweisling. The Imperial Commissioners at that place having beaten the rebels back failed to pursue and conquer them, and they advanced unopposed across the vast province of Hoonan. At Changsha they encountered strong resistance. After a siege of eighty days they abandoned the attack and marched northward. They captured Yoochow, which was an important arsenal, and soon afterward Han- kow, Manchong, and How-Kong were taken. In the Argentine Republic the civil war and its conse- quent upheavals were continued. On February 3 General Urquiza, commanding the combined army of Entre Rios and Brazil, defeated General Rosas at Monte Caezros, "the gate of Buenos Ayres." The city capitulated and the civil war seemed ended. Urquiza announced himself as provisional dictator. On May 31 he was elected Provisional President, while Vincente Lopez was elected Governor of Buenos Avres. One month later Urquiza, having won over the army by a sudden coup d'etat, seized the reins of government as dictator. His first measure was to acknowledge the independence of Paraguay. In September Urquiza's refusal to recognize the political and commercial preeminence of Buenos Ayres pro- duced another revolt. On September 11 the people of Buenos Ayres, under the leadership of Bartholomay Mitre, seceded from the confederacy. Urquiza wvas compelled to leave Buenos Ayres and proceeded to Santa Fe, where he was acknowledged as President by the thirteen other provinces. 747 1852 DEATH OF GOGOL They bound themselves by a treaty to secure the free naviga- tion of all rivers flowing into the La Plata. On November 20 the Congress of the Confederation met at Santa Fe and invested Urquiza with full powers to suppress the revolution in Buenos Ayres. U-rquiza's blockade of the city by sea led to another revolution within the walls of Buenos Ayres. Gen- eral Pintos assumed charge and Urquiza withdrew. Nicholas Vasilievitch Gogol, the "Father of the Russian Novel," died on March 4 at Moscow. After prolonged travels through Germany, France, Italy, and Palestine, Gogol re- turned to Russia and settled near St. Petersburg. He wrote short stories and descriptions of travel, and finally published the incomplete satirical novel, "Dead Souls," -which is the best of his works. In this novel he handled Russian life fear- lessly, with satirical comments on the weak points of Ruissian societv. On February 20 Lord Palmerston was enabled to make his former colleagues in the Cabinet feel his power. Owing to general vague apprehensions that Prince Louis Napoleon might revive his illustrious namesake's projects against Eng- land, a cry had arisen for the strengthening of the national defences. To satisfy this demand, Lord John Russell brought in a local militia bill. Lord Palmerston promptly moved an amendment for a general volunteer force instead of local militia, thus totally altering the nature of the bill. The amendment was sustained by a majority of eleven votes. Lord John Russell's Ministry thereupon resigned, and the Earl of Derby was called in. The most conspicuous member of the new Cabinet was Benjamin Disraeli, who took the port- folio of the Exchequer. Disraeli by this time had already achieved popularity as an author. The new Ministry was so distinctly protectionist that the Anti-Corn Law League was reorganized to resume the agita- tion for free trade. Soon the perennial troubles with America 748 1852 DEATH OF HENRY CLAY about the fisheries of Newfoundland broke out afresh. The new Foreign Secretary, the Earl of Malmesbury, insisted upon a strict fulfilment of the terms agreed upon in the con- vention of 1818. Armed vessels were sent to the coast of British North America. The United States likewise sent a war steamer to the disputed fishing-grounds. Many vessels were boarded for information, but both sides abstained from giving serious grounds for complaint. In the United States the Whigs, encouraged by their suc- cess with Taylor, put forth another military officer, General Scott, as their Presidential candidate. Franklin Pierce was nominated bv the Democratic Convention in Baltimore. The Free Democrats selected John P. Hale. Pierce carried twenty-seven States to Scott's four, receiving 254 electoral votes to Scott's 42. Henry Clay died in June. He was a candidate for the Presidency three times. Few Americans have been more idolized than he. His great success wvas largely due to his manner, which captivated opponents as well as friends. In will and fine sense of honor he was as firm and lofty as Jack- son or Jefferson. He it was who said that he would "rather be right than President." His death was followed in October by that of his great rival, Daniel Webster. This great Amer- ican orator was born in 1782, the son of a New England farmer. He was graduated from Dartmouth College, and began the study of law. As a result of the speeches in oppo- sition to Jefferson's and Madison's embargo policy against England. Daniel Webster was elected by the Federalists of New Hampshire to represent them in the Thirteenth Con- gress. Pitted against such distinguished speakers as Cal- houn and Henry Clay, he gradually came to be acknowledged the foremost orator of America. Junius Brutus Booth, the great English tragedian, died in America while returning from a lucrative tour in Cali- '49 1852 DEATH OF WELLINGTON fornia. Booth made his debut at Covent Garden Theatre in London in 1814 as Richard III, eclipsing Edmund Kean, then acting at Drury Lane. In 1821 he made his first appear- ance in the LUnited States, again as Richard III, and was re- ceived with such enthusiasm that he settled permanently at Baltimore. On his death he left two sons, both actors like himself, and both destined to make their mark in life. The death of Thomas Moore, the Irish poet, excited as much attention in America as it did in England. Born at Dublin in 1779, Tom Moore, as he was usually called, wrote verses in early youth. After graduating at Trinity College he came to London, and there dedicated his translation of the poems of Anacreon to the Prince Regent. He became a fa- vorite of fashionable society. He obtained the appointment of Registrar to the Admiralty in Bermuda, but on arriving there hired a deputy to discharge the duties of the office and went on a tour to America. Like some other famous trav- elers, he conceived a poor opinion of the American people. In commemoration of his trip, Moore brought out "Epistles, Odes, and other Poems," containing many defamatory verses on America. Later, Moore brought out his charming "Irish Melodies," the most popular of all his productions. Messrs. Longwin, the publishers, agreed to give him pound;3,000 for a long poem on an Oriental subject. Moore retired to the banks of the Dofe, surrounded himself with Oriental books, and in three years produced "Lalla Rookh." The success of this work was beyond the expectations of the publishers. The death of Wellington, on September 14, was felt as a national loss in England. The Iron Duke died in his eighty- fourth year, having grown more and more infirm in his last few years. William E. Gladstone delivered the funeral ora- tion in Parliament, and Alfred Tennyson recited his famous "Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington" at the bier. Arthur Wellesley received his first military education in 750 1852 GLADSTONE WORSTS DISRAELI France, under the direction of Pignorel, the celebrated engi- neer. He saw his first active service with the Duke of York's disastrous expedition to the Netherlands in 1794. There hie gained his coloneley. After his transfer to India he served under his elder brother, Marquis Wellesley, and gained the brilliant victories of Assaye and of Argaum. On his return from India lie was appointed Secretary for Ireland, and there established the celebrated police force which later served as a model for that of London. In 1807 he took part in the expedition against Copenhagen. and after the death of Sir John Moore was sent to Portugal. The subsequent events of his career have already been recorded in the present work. A new Parliament assembled in November. The result of the elections left the Government in as hopeless a minority as before. An elaborate system of finance brought forward by Disraeli was rudely handled by Gladstone. The debate was one of the fiercest ever heard in Parliament. The ex- citement on both sides was intense. Disraeli, animated by the power of desperation, was in a mood neither to give nor to take quarter. He assailed Sir Charles Wood, the late Chan- cellor of the Exchequer, with a vehemence which more than once went to the very limits of Parliamentary decorum. The House had not heard the concluding word of Disraeli's bitter and impassioned speech, when Gladstone leaped to his feet to answer him. Swayed by his powerful argument, the Gov- ernment was defeated. That day, at Osborne, the resignation of the Ministry was accepted by the Queen. The Earl of Aberdeen formed a new Ministry including Lord John Russell as Foreign Secretary; Lord Palmerston, Rome Secretary; Earl Granville, President of the Council; Gladstone, Chancellor of the Exchequer, while Sir W. Moles- worth, the historian, was Commissioner of Public Works. The Marquis of Lansdowne occupied a seat in the Cabinet without holding any office. It was another Ministry of all 751 18S2 1852 LOUIS NAPOLEON IS ELECTED EMPEROR the talents. Recent events in France demanded instant at- tention, the more so since the municipal council of London had taken upon itself to send an address of congratulation to Louis Napoleon upon his assumption of the Empire. In the end the British Government took the same course. In Paris the Senate had been reconvened to consider the reinstitution of the Empire. Within three days a senatus consuitum was ready, recommending the desired change to another plebiscite. Every one of the Senators, so the Paris- ians suggested, referring to the amount of a Senator's salary, had 30,000 reasons for advocating the change. The formal- ity of a plebiscite was accomplished by November 21. The Government functionaries reported 7,854,189 yeas against 253,145 nays. On the anniversary of his coup d'etat of the previous year, Louis Napoleon took the title of Napoleon III, by the grace of God and the will of the nation, Emperor of the French. The title was made hereditary. In vain did the Count of Chambord voice the protest of the Royalists, and Victor Hugo, in his exile on the island of Jersey, that of the Republicans. France was once more under imperial rule, and seemed content to remain so. About this time the great Cr6dit Mobilier was established as a joint-stock company by Jacob-Emile Pereire. Outside of France Louis Napoleon's second coup d'etat created little stir. Only Emperor Nicholas of Russia refused to recognize Louis Napoleon as a full-fledged monarch. An ecclesiastical dispute concerning the guardianship of the holy places in Palestine threatened to make trouble between France and Russia. In the end the Sultan was prevailed upon to sign a treaty confirming the sole custody of the Holy Sepul- chre to the French. 752 EVENTS OF 1853 Napoleon III Marries Eugnie, a Spanish Countess-Powers Recognize 1im as Emperor-He Executes Napoleon I's Will-Bourbons and Orleanists Combine on One Pretender, the Count of Paris-Gervinus, the German Historian, Convicted of Treason-Sentenee of Imprison- ment is Stayed-Death of Tieck, the Poet-Reactionary Measures in Italy-Revolts in Milan and Rome are Suppressed-Cavour, Premier of Sardinia, Plans for Unification of Italy-His Anti-Clerical Policy -Death of Grossi, the Poet-Exhibits of Courbet, the Pioneer of Realistic Painting-Strikes in England-Industrial Exhibition at Dublin is Visited by Victoria-Pierce is Inaugurated President- Kane's Arctic Expedition-Death of Arago-Commodore Perry's Ex- pedition to Japan-Contending Japanese Parties Use It as Pretext for Political Changes-Taiping Rebels Capture Nanking and Make It Their Capital-They March on Pekin, Defeating Manchu Force at Sin Simming Pass-They are Invested by Manchus at Tsinghi- Secretary Everett Refuses Suggestion of Engiand and France that United States Promise Never to Annex Cuba, and Reiterates Monroe Doctrine-Gadqsden Purchase of Mexican Territory-Captain In- graham Rescues Koszta, a Hungarian-American, from Austrian Cus- tody-Congress Replies to Austria's Protest by Honoring Ingraham -Austria and Prussia Form Alliance-Austria Joins Zollverein- ,russia Contests with France for Protectorate of Oriental Chris- tians-Powers Side with France-Russia Incites Montenegrins to Revolt against Turkey-Austria Frustrates Russia by Bringing Sul- tan to Montenegro's Terms-Menzikov Delivers Czar's Ultimatum to Sultan with Studied Insult-Russia Holds in Pawn Danube Prin- cipalities of the Sultan-Powers Advise Sultan to Make Concessions -Russia Construes These as Conferring on Her Protectorate of Christians in Turkey-Sultan Rejects Note of Powers-Russia De- clares War-Turks Defeat Russians at Oltenizza-England and France Despatch Fleets to Bosphorus-Russian Gunboats Sink Wooden Turkish Squadron at Sinope-Aberdeen Resigns-Palmer- ston Returns-Powers Demand of Russia to Evacuate Danube Prin- cipalities. O N January 30 Louis Napoleon married Eug6nie Marie de Montijo de Guzman, a Spanish beauty. Raised to the rank of Empress, this ambitious lady at once became a leader of fashion. The Czar of Russia, acting in conformity with the sovereigns of Austria and Prussia, finally consented to acknowledge Napoleon III as Emperor of the French, and Great Britain followed. Strengthened by this outward recognition, Louis Napoleon deemed it safe to extend an amnesty to some 4,500 political prisoners and Republican exiles. On February 5, however, 753 GERVINUS CONVICTED OF TREASON General Saint-Priest, with many other Royalists, was secretly arrested on charges of communicating with the Comte de Chambord and of sending false news to foreign newspapers. Not long afterward a bill was passed restoring capital pun- ishment for attempts to subvert the Imperial Government and for plots against the life of the Emperor. On the recog- nition of the Empire by Great Britain, application was made to the English Government for a surrender of the Great Na- poleon's last testament. The request was granted. Louis Napoleon thereupon undertook to carry out his famous uncle's bequests. Under the stress of adversity, the two branches of the Bourbon family became reconciled to each other. The Duke de Nemours, on behalf of the House of Orleans, made his peace with the Comte de Chambord. Henceforth, the Count of Paris was recognized by the Royal- ists of France as the rightful heir of the crown. In Germany, reactionary measures of repression were 3till in order. An alleged democratic conspiracy was un- earthed at Berlin in March, and another in April. In Baden Georg Gervinus, the historian, on charges of high treason for writing his "Introduction to the History of the Nineteenth Century," was sentenced to ten months' imprisonment, and his book was ordered to be burnt. The sentence of im- prisonment, however, was not executed. On April 28 Lud- wig Tieck, the great German Shakespearian scholar and romantic poet, died at Berlin. In Italy severe measures of reaction were inflicted on the people of the governments of Austria, Naples, and some of the petty principalities. In Tuscany the reading of the Bible was prohibited. In February a revolt at Milan, insti- gated by AMazzini, was ruthlessly put down. A few months later a revolutionary plot was revealed at Rome. Somie 150 conspirators were thrown into prison. As heretofore, Gari- baldi figured in these movements. In Sardinia alone, under 754 1853 INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITIONS ! the enlightened Ministry of Count Cavour, the liberal move- ment for united Italy was encouraged. The Pope's hostile attitude was resented by the passage of anti-clerical measures in Sardinia. Thus at first ecclesiastical jurisdiction was abolished, and later bills were proposed for the suppression of convents and for the ultimate withdrawal of all State support from the clergy. In October, while the conspiracy trials were still in full prosecution at Milan, Tommaso Grossi, the Italian romantic poet, died in that city. Inspired by his intercourse with Manzoni, he wrote "Ildegonda," a romantic poem treating of the times of chivalry and cloister life. This poem won a great success. Among his prose tales, the most lasting in interest is the historical novel "Marco Visconti." Gustave Courbet, the French originator of realism in painting, the man who claimed that all search for the beauti- ful or ideality in art was a gross error, this year exhibited his "Women Bathing," and again created a stir on the exhi- bition of his "Funeral at Ornans" and his "Drunken Peas- ants at Flagny." In England a period of great prosperity had set in, not- withstanding several great labor strikes, among them that of the London cabmen, and of many thousands of operatives at Stockport and Preston. The success of the Crystal Palace Exhibition had been such that another great Industrial Ex- hibition was held at Dublin. It was made the occasion of Queen Victoria's second visit to Ireland. International expositions were likewise held at Berlin and in New York. The change of Administration in the United States of North America gave a new tone to affairs there, and inci- dentally brought America into closer touch with the Eat. Franklin Pierce was forty-nine years of age when he became President. During the Mexican War he had fought with credit under Scott. William L. Marcy became Secretary 1853 DEATH OF ARAGO of State, and Guthrie, 3McClelland, Jefferson Davis, Dobbin, Campbell, and Cushing completed the Cabinet. It was said that Pierce came into office with no bitter opposition and went out with none. In his inaugural message he spoke with doubt concerning his own powers. In truth, he proved him- self the tool of different managers. The American Government also assisted Grinnell in fit- ting out a second expedition to the Arctic under charge of Dr. Kane, who was surgeon and naturalist of the former ex- pedition. The ships were frozen fast on the shores of Green- land. Kane's crew, without waiting for relief, set out to return in open boats, and after a voyage of 1,300 miles reached a Danish settlement in Greenland, where a relief ex- pedition met them. They reached New York on October 11, 1855, where they were welcomed as men risen from the dead. They brought no news concerning Sir John Franklin. Dominique Frangois Arago died on October 2, at the age of sixty-seven. Scientists remember him chiefly for his experiments and discoveries in magnetism and optics. He was one of the few men who championed Fresnel during the controversy which raged at the time when the undulatory theory of light was first announced. As a popular expounder of scientific facts, Arago had few equals. With Gay-Lussac he was the founder of "Annals of Chemistry and Physics." He was also an active politician, and was a member of the French Provisional Government of 1848. A thriving Oriental trade had sprung up, fostered partly by the development of steam navigation and partly by the dis- covery of gold in California. A few years previously a first attempt had been made by the United States Government to break down if possible the system of exclusion kept up by Japan. Commodore Biddle was despatched with two war vessels. His mission proved unsatisfactory, and the Commo- dore was subjected to humiliating experiences. Early in 9756 1853 PERRY ENTERS JAPAN 1853 President Fillmore sent Commodore Perry with a squadron of four vessels to present a letter from the President of the United States to the Mikado of Japan, asking consent to the negotiation of a treaty of friendship and commerce between the two Governments. On July 7 Commodore Perry's squadron steamed into the harbor of Yeddo. Perry got a favorable reception after using his big guns. The President's letter was left with the Mikado for the considera- tion of the Japanese Government, while Perry sailed away, promising to return the following spring. In the meanwhile violent upheavals in Japan resulted from the appearance of the American mission at Yeddo. The appearance of the squadron had long been anticipated, and was the subject of violent political discussions. Japan at that time was threat- ened with civil war. Two parties were disputing concerning the proper successor to the worn-out Shogun, who had hi-th- erto wielded the powers of the impotent Mikado. The head of one party was Ee Kamong No Kami, the head of the Fudai daimios. By right he was to be appointed Re- gent in case of an emergency. The head of the other party was the Prince of Mlito, one of the "three families," hered- itary Vice-Shogun in Yeddo, and connected by marriage with the family of the Emperor and with the wealthiest daimios. The two parties made the arrival of the American squadron a pretext for grasping at the reins of power. Letters were sent to all the daimios and ometkis, requesting their opin- ions as to the reception to be given to the Americans. The majority were for resenting any foreign interference in the affairs of Japan by force. It was agreed, however, that open declaration of war had best be deferred until the compara- tively defenseless shores of Japan could be strengthened and sea forts could be erected. In China the Taipings, having captured Kinkiang and Gurking, closely invested Nanking. After a fortnight's 757 185;3 TAIPINGS MARCH ON PEKIN siege, the city surrendered to an armed rabble. The Tatar colony of 200,000 threw themselves upon Tien Wang's meacy, but not 100 of them escaped. "We killed them all," said one of the Taipings; "we left not a root to sprout from." The acquisition of Nanking, the second city in the Empire, made the Taipings formidable rivals to the Manchus, and Tien Wang became a contestant with Hienfung for Imperial honors. It cut off communication between north and south China. Chin Kiangfoo, at the entrance of the Grand Canal, and Yangehow, on the north bank of the river, also fell into their hands. Tien Wang proclaimed Nanking, the old Ming city, his capital. At a council of war it was decided to pro- vision and fortify Nanking, and then march against Pekin. By the end of May the Taiping army numbered 80,000. They attacked Kaifong and were repulsed, but continued their march toward Pekin. After crossing the Hoang-ho, they were again repulsed at Hwaiking. Passing on, they defeated a Manchu force in the Sin Simming Pass, and in September added the province of Pechili, and came to Tsing, twenty miles south of Tien-tsin, less than 100 miles from Pekin. The fate of the Manchu dynasty trembled in the balance. The Mongol levies at last arrived under their great chief, Sankolinsin, and the invaders retired to their fortified camp at Tsinghai and sent to Tien Wang for succor. At Tsinghai they were beleaguered for some time to come. The recurrence of American filibustering expeditions to Cuba appeared to the Governments of England and France as evidence of an American purpose to secure Cuba and the West Indian Islands. To avert this, they suggested to the United States Government to make a treaty which should se- cure Cuba to Spain. The American Government was asked "to decline now and forever hereafter all intention to obtain possession of the island of Cuba and to discontinue all such attempts in that direction on the part of any individual or 758 1853 THE GADSDEN PURCHASE Power whatever." Secretary of State Everett replied that the question affected American and not European policy, coming not properly within the scope of the interference of European Cabinets; that the United States did not intend to violate any existing laws; that the American Government claimed the right to act regarding Cuba independently of any other Power, and that it could not view with indifference the fall of Cuba into any other hands than those of Spain. This was tantamount to a reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. France did not reply to Everett's note, and the correspon- dence with the British Foreign Office was scarcely more satisfactory. A new treaty with Mexico was negotiated by Gadsden, by which the United States secured Marrila Valley, with 44,000 square miles, on the payment of 10,000,000. This settled the Mexican boundary dispute and averted all danger of further war. Another international complication had arisen with Aus- tria. On June 21 Martin Koszta, a Hungarian refugee and would-be American citizen, traveling under a United States passport, was arrested by the Austrian consul at Smyrna. Captain Ingraham of the United States sloop-of-war "St. Louis," cruising in Turkish waters, hearing of this, put into Smyrna. In accordance with the recent treaty governing Austrian refugees in Turkey, he demanded the surrender of Koszta within eight hours. If the man were not surrendered he threatened to land marines and take him by force. It was finally agreed to leave Koszta in the hands of the French consul, who presently released him. Austria issued a eir- cular note to the courts of Europe protesting against the con- duct of Captain Ingraham, and followed this up with a formal protest to the Government of the United States. The reply of the American Congress was to vote a medal for Captain Ingraham. There the incident closed. 759 1853 "THE SICK MAN OF EUROPE" Other affairs absorbed the interest of Austria's Foreign Minister. A treaty was signed with Prussia establishing a virtual defensive and offensive alliance. At the same time Austria joined the German Zollverein for twelve years. When the Montenegrins rose against their Turkish oppres- sors, Austria supported their cause and demanded a redress of their grievances from Turkey. After protracted negotia- tions this was granted. The wrongs of the Montenegrins and other Christian subjects of Turkey were warmly espoused by Russia. Czar Nicholas, as the pontiff of the Russian-Greek Church, claimed a protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey. The pending difficulties concerning the Holy Sep- ulchre in Jerusalem became part of the controversy. On the pretext of legalizing the predominant position of the Greek Church as one of the guardians of the Holy Sepulchre, the Czar assumed a threatening attitude toward Turkey. For a while Lord Stratford Canning, the British Ambassador at Constantinople, succeeded in mediating between Russia and France. A temporary agreement was effected. At this point the appearance of a French fleet in Turkish waters gave great offence to Russia, making it appear that the concessions to France had been extorted by a menace. Already Sir Ham- ilton Seymour, the British Ambassador at St. Petersburg, had been sounded by the Czar. It was on that occasion that Nicholas uttered the historic phrase that "the sick man was dying," meaning the Ottoman Empire. It was then, too, that tentative offers were made to England to let her take Egypt and the island of Candia, provided Russia could mnae. herself mistress of the Balkans. The traditional aspirations of Russia toward Constanti- nople were well understood in Europe. With the exception of Prussia, the European Powers, contrary to the Czar's ex- pectations, were resolved to preserve the independence and integrity of Turkey. 760 1853 THE CZAR'S ULTIMATUM The Continental Powers diplomatically met the Czar on his own religious ground. Protestant England, on the other band, with no pilgrims to defend, could protest only on the score of preserving the balance of power. A deeper reason for British opposition lay in the possible opening of the Black Sea to Russian commerce, and the consequent loss of Oriental trade to English merchants. Louis Napoleon, who could hardly begin his imperial reign in France more auspiciously than by avenging the disasters of his immortal uncle's Grand Army in Russia, entered the lists as the champion of the Roman Catholic Christians of the Orient. Austria, though she took no active part against her recent ally, ingeniously frustrated the plans of the Russian autocrat by bringing the Sultan to terms in his attempt to crush the insurgent Mon- tenegrins, who had been incited by Russia to revolt. Thus was Nicholas robbed of his best pretext for impressing his will upon Turkey. Chagrined at the triumph of Austria, angered by the demands made by the French Ambassador, Marquis de Lavalette, in behalf of Roman Catholic pilgrims, Nicholas sent his Admiral, Prince Menzikov, as Ambassador Extraordinary to the Porte. With unusual ostentation Men- zikov gathered the Russian fleet and an army of 30,000 men at Sebastopol, and then went alone to Constantinople. Ile demanded an audience of the Sultan, and on March 2 ap- peared before him in a plain overcoat and with boots covered with dust. His appearance was in keeping with his mission. In the name of his master he demanded the protectorate over all Greek Christians. Failing to attain his end, Menzikov, after a six weeks' stay, delivered a Russian ultimatum. Late in May he left Constantinople, prophesying his speedy reap- pearance in uniform. Three weeks later the French and En- glish fleets cast anchor in the entrance to the Dardanelles. It was not to be expected that a ruler like Nicholas would shrink from war. On July 7 he despatched Prince Michael 761 1853 DECLARATION OF WAR Gortschakov, together with two army divisions of 40,000 men each, respectively commanded by Generals Lueders and Danneberg, across the Pruth, with orders to hold the Danube principalities until the Sultan had granted the Russian de- mands. Sultan Abdul Majid, through his grand vizier, Reschid Pasha, issued a firman recognizing the rights of his Christian subjects. UIpon crossing the Pruth, the Russian Commander-in-Chief assured the people of Moldavia and Wallachia that their property and persons would not be molested; but the Russian soldiers seized the public funds, compelled peasants to give up their cattle and their grain, and pressed the native militia into the Czar's service. Still, European diplomats hoped to preserve peace. The Porte was persuaded not to regard the invasion of the Danube principalities as a casuas beUli. The conference which was held by the representatives of the Powers resulted in the Viennese mediatory note, by the terms of which the Sultan was to yield to the Czar, with certain restrictions. Russia's claim of a protectorate was utterly ignored. The Czar accepted the conditions imposed, but held that the note gave him the desired protectorate by implication. In England the press fiercely attacked the faint-hearted politicians of the Continent. Layard, the discoverer of the royal palaces of Nineveh, appeared as the champion of Turkey in the House of Commons. Still more threatening was the attitude of the war party in Constantinople. The Sultan was forced to re- ject the note and to prepare for the storm. Hatred of Russia and religious fanaticism inspired the Turks with something of the old love of battle and lust of conquest. On October 4 an ultimatum was sent to Russia in which war was threat- ened if the invaded territory were not forthwith evacuated. Russia replied with a declaration of war on November 1. The Sultan, for complying with the wishes of his people, was rewarded by the ready payment of heavy war taxes, and by 762 1853 DESTRUCTION OF TURKISH SQUADRON 1 hordes of volunteers flocking to arms. Even Tunis and Egypt placed troops at the disposal of the mother country. In a short time a considerable fighting force was gathered uinder Omar Pasha on the south bank of the Danube. On the 4th of November the river was crossed and a defeat inflicted on the Russians at Oltenizza. Had the Czar sent his troops into the Balkans imme- diately after he declared war, he might have struck a decisive blow before the Powers could come to the assistance of the Turks. But he had pledged himself not to cross the Danube when he met the Emperor of Austria at Olmitz, and again when he visite(l the King of Prussia in Berlin. Thus he had persuaded them to adopt a policy of neutrality. England and France now promised to give Turkey their armed support if the Czar persisted in his demands. Their fleets sailed for the Bosphorus. At Sinope a Turkish squadron composed of two steamers, two corvettes, and seven frigates rode at anchor under the guns of a small battery. On November 30 the Turks were surprised by a Russian fleet commanded by Admiral Nachi- mov, consisting of six ships of the line and three steamers- all vessels of large size, armed with the smooth-bore shell- gun. For the first time in naval history the disastrous effect of shell fire on wooden ships was demonstrated. Only one Turkish steamer escaped to tell the tale. This blow, dealt beneath the very guns of the allied fleets, had its immediate effect. Lord Aberdeen, whose foreign pol- icy was far too mild for the taste of most Englishmen, was so bitterly attacked that he resigned. The return of Palmerston to the iMinistry was the signal for war. In December the Vienna Conference sent to Nicholas a second note, demanding the evacuation of the Danube principalities. 1853 EVENTS OF 1854 Congress Passes Senator Douglas's Bill for Organization of Kansas and Nebraska Territories with Option of Settlers as to Admission of Slavery-"Republican" Party Meets at Detroit to Oppose Extension of Slavery-Contest Between Pro-Slavery and Anti-Slavery Inter- ests to Colonize the New Territories-Imported Missourians Carry First Kansas Elections by Intimidation-American Government Buys Off Obligation to Police Mexican Border-Reciprocity Treaty with Great Britain Gives United States Access to Canada and Newfoundland Fisheries-Frermont's Fifth E-xpedition to California -Spanish Confiscate American Steamer "Black Warrior" at lIa- vana as Filibuster-American Diplomats Meet at Ostend and Recoin- mend Purchase or Seizure of Cuba-Taiping Rebels Capture Linsting -British Recognize Independence of Orange Free State-Espartero Leads Successful Revolution in Spain-Cortes Frames a New Lib- eral Constitution-Death of Sontag, the Singer-Russian Defeaits at Kalafat and Cetate Cool Anti-Moslem Ardor in Balkans and Greece -Czar Makes Paskievitch Commander-in-Chief-He Crosses the Danube in Breach of Czar s Promise to Austria-France and Eing- land Declare War against Russia-Their Forces under Raglan and St. Arnaud Land at Gallipoli-They Bombard Odessa--Blocked by Heroic Defence of Silistria and Opposition of Austria, Paskie- vitch Withdraws Over Danube-French are Dlecimated at Varna by Heat and Cholera-Allies' Fleet under Napier Fails to Take Kron- stadt-Allied Armies Invest Sebastopol-They Win Battle of the Alma-Tolstoy on Siege of Sebastopol-Menzikov Sinks Ships in Harbor-Todleben Fortifies City-Russians Capture Canrobert's Hill-Charge of English Heavy Brigade Beats Back Russian (Cav- alrv-Bz Mistaken Order the Light Brigade Makes Heroic but Futile Charge on Russian Battery-Russian Attack at Inkerinann Repulsed at Heavy Cost-Fraud and Mismanagement in Hospital Service of Allies Lead to Great Mortality-Florence Nightingale Reforms the Service-Piedmont (Sardinia) Joins Allies-Austria, to Thwart Piedmont, Makes Defensive Treaty with Allies against Russia. [N the American Congress, on January 23, Senator Douglas introduced a bill repealing the provisions of --the Missouri Compromise for two proposed Territories, Kansas and Nebraska. This reopened the slavery discussion, which President Pierce six weeks before had declared to be closed forever. At the East, Mason and Dixon's line be- tween Pennsylvania and M aryland had been regarded as separating freedom from slavery. At the West, the parallel of 360 30', agreed on in 1820, was regarded as the border line. To cross this boundary, and remove all obstacles against slavery, promptly became the determination of the 'T64 "SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY" South. Douglas's bill now declared that the Compromise of 1850 left the question of slavery to the people within the Territory. General Cass gave to this doctrine the title of "Squatter Sovereignty." The bill passed by 113 to 100, and was taken up by the Senate May 24, and passed by 35 to 13. President Pierce signed it on May 30. By the provisions of the bill, the country in question was to be organized into the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska; the slavery question was to be settled by the residents; the Supreme Court was to determine the title to slaves, if appeal was taken from the local courts, and the Fugitive Slave law was to be enforced. On July 6 a State Convention was held at Detroit of all anti- Nebraska citizens, irrespective of former political affiliations. This Convention first designated the fusion of Whigs, Free Soilers, "Know Nothings," and Democrats who opposed ex- tension of slavery, by the name "Republican." Within the three months immediately preceding, treaties had been quietly made with a half score of Indian nations in Kansas, by which the greater part of the soil for 200 miles west was opened. In June, within a few days after the act had been passed, hundreds of Missourians crossed into Kan- sas, took up quarter-sections and claimed the right of pre- emption upon the eastern region. In Massachusetts and other Eastern States, societies were meanwhile formed for the pur- pose of making Kansas a free State. All the Northwest was eager to furnish squatters. In the East, Eli Thayer organ- ized emigration to Kansas. When the country was thrown open to settlement, the company which he had organized took up claims at Lawrence. A population of 8,000 pressed in from the North. Meetings were held in Missouri in the slave interest, which pledged that State to send men to Kansas and remove all the Free State inunigrants. A bloody election was held in Kansas. The pro-slavery Legislature made it a felony to circulate anti-slavery publications, or to deny the X1Xth Ccntuy-Vol. 11-15 765 1854 RECIPROCITY WITH CANADA right to hold slaves. Reeder, the newly appointed first Governor, arrived. An election was ordered to choose a delegate for Congress. Armed Missourians from across the border took possession of the polls, and by methods of intimidation elected Whitfield, a slave-holding delegate, to Congress. At a second election thirteen State Senators and twenty-six members of a Lower House were declared elected. For this purpose 6,320 votes were cast-more than twice the number of legal voters. Foreign affairs for a short while served to distract atten- tion from the all-engrossing subject. Mexican boundary dis- putes were further ended by a repeal of the obligation of Guadalupe Hidalgo which required the Mexican frontier to be defended against the Indians. For this release the United States paid to Mexico 10,000,000. A reciprocity treaty was made with Great Britain which opened to the United States all the frontiers of British Amer- ica except Newfoundland, and gave to the British the right to share the American fisheries to the 36th parallel. Com- merce in breadstuffs, fish, animals, and lumber between the United States and the British provinces was made free. The St. Lawrence and Canadian Canals were opened to American vessels. All future differences were to be settled bv arbi- tration. During this year news arrived of the safe arrival of Frg- mont's fifth expedition to California. He had crossed the Rocky Mountains at the sources of the Arkansas and Colorado Rivers, passed through the Mormon settlement, and discov- ered a number of passes. He was chosen the first United States Senator from California, and served for a short term. On February 28 the American steamship "Black War- rior" was seized in Havana Harbor, and was confiscated by the Spanish Government on the charge of filibustering. The American House of Representatives prepared to suspend the 766 1854 THE OSTEND CIRCULAR neutrality laws between the United States and Spain; but it was finally decided to demand an indemnity from Spain. This action gave an interest to filibustering operations in Cuba. Expeditions were fitted out, but were stopped by a proclamation of the President on June 1. The American representatives at the courts of England, France, and Spain, by direction of the President, met at Ostend, Belgium, to confer on the best method of settling the difficulties of Cuba and obtaining possession of the island. In the Ostend Cir- cular these diplomats recommended to the Government of the United States that Cuba should be purchased if possible, and if that could not be done that it should be taken by force "If Spain, actuated by stubborn pride and a false sense of honor, should refuse to sell Cuba to the United States, then by every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting it from Spain if we possess the power." In this Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule were held to have gone beyond the demands of public opinion. In their camp at Isinghai the Taiping rebels, in China, were closely beleaguered through the early part of the year until spring. Their provisions then becoming exhausted, they cut their way out and retreated southward. A relieving army from Nanking rescued them from imminent capture. They then captured Linsting, where their headquarters remained for some months. During the rest of the year their successes were unimportant. In South Africa the difficulties of administering the re- calcitrant communities of the Boers in the Orange River ter- ritory proved such that during this year the struggle was abandoned as hopeless by the British authorities. The Orange River Free State, organized as an independent Re- public of Dutch settlers, was recognized as such. On June 28 another military insurrection broke out near Madrid. General Espartero assumed charge of the move- 767 1854 1854 FRANCE AND ENGLAND WAR ON RUSSIA ment. It found favor in Madrid and Barcelona. Within a fortnight the Ministry -was overthrown. On July 19 Bal- domero Espartero was welcomed with great enthusiasm on his return to power. On the last day of the month the Queen had to present herself on the balcony of her palace in Madrid while 3,000 revolutionists from the barri- cades paraded before her. Espartero on his return to power forthwith convoked the Cortes to frame a new liberal consti- tution, a task which was accomplished before the close of the year. In Mexico the celebrated operatic singer Henriette Sontag died of cholera. Born at Coblentz in 1805, she made an early d6but, and appeared with brilliant success in all the capitals of Europe, where she was recognized as a worthy rival of Mfalibran. In 1829 she married Count Rossi, and in the following year retired from the stage. Twenty years 'later, in consequence of the loss of her fortune, she returned to the stage, and it was found that her voice had lost none of its power and charm. The Turkish war had so far not fulfilled the expectations of Russia. Not only had the Czar's troops been repulsed at Kalafat, despite their greater numbers, but they had also been surprised and beaten at Cetate. These defeats made it diffi- cult for Russian emissaries to rouse the Balkan States against Turkey. In Greece the arrival of English and French ships at the Piraeus caused King Otto to disperse the Greek volun- teers who had collected on the frontier with wild talk of over- throwing Turkey and rebuilding a new Christian Byzantine Empire. The Czar entrusted the supreme command of his armies to Prince Paskievitch, regarded, despite his great age, as the best general of Russia. Operations were shifted further to the east, partly to still the apprehensions of Aus- tria, partly in the hope that more Slavic Christians would join the Russian army. In the middle of March Paskievitch 768 BOMBARDMENT OF ODESSA crossed the Danube not far from the mouth of the Pruth, de- spite the promises made by the Czar to Prussia and Austria. The Czar's rejection of a second pacific note from Vienna, together with the breach of the promise given to his fellow sov- ereigns, was followed, on March 28, by a formal declaration of war on the part of France and England. Without effective resistance on the part of the Turks, General Lueders seized the region known as the Dobrudsha and joined General Schilder before the walls of Silistria, while Omar Pasha, in the face of a superior Russian force, was compelled to retire to the fortress of Shumla. These energetic Russian movements spurred the Western Powers to greater activity. In April an English army of 20,000 men under Lord Raglan, together with a French force more than twice as large under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud, distin- guished for his deeds in Africa and for his part in Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat, landed at Gallipoli. The allies bombarded Odessa on April 22, taking good care, however, not to destroy English property in the city. The crossing of the Danube by the Russians led Austria and Prussia to form an offensive and defensive alliance, both agreeing to wage war on the Czar if he sent his armies across the Balkans or incorporated the Danube principalities. A joint note was sent to St. Petersburg by Austria and Prussia, demanding the withdrawal of the Russian troops from the invaded territory of the Danube. Austria concluded a treaty with the Porte, by the terms of which she was to seize the Danube principalities, on the borders of which she had mob- ilized her troops. Paskievitch's efforts to reduce Silistria proved fruitless. The courageous example of Mussa Pasha and the skill of Grach, a Prussian officer of artillery, were more than a match for the strategy of the Russian command- ing general. The hostile attitude of the Austrian troops on 769 1854 EXPEDITION AGAINST SEBASTOPOL the frontier of Wallachia and Moldavia, and the landing of French and English expeditions at Varna, caused Paskievitch on June 21 to withdraw his weakened force across the Dan- ube and the Pruth. In the attempt to reduce Silistria the lives of many Russian soldiers had been sacrificed. Paskie- vitch himself was slightly wounded. Eighteen months after his defeat he died in Warsaw. Schilder, Alussa, and Grach, all mortally wounded, had been carried off before him. The losses of the allies were also serious. An ill-considered march of the French from Varna into the Dobrudsha resulted in the loss of 2,000 men, most of whom succumbed to the insuffer- able heat. In the camp at Varna cholera wrought terrible havoc. Upon the sea the allies were no more successful. An English and French fleet, under Sir Charles Napier, pro- ceeded to the Baltic Sea for the purpose of persuading Swe- den to join France and England, of reducing the fortress of Rronstadt, the key to the Russian capital, and of attacking St. Petersburg itself. Sweden, despite the efforts of the Powers, held aloof like Prussia. The walls of Kronstadt defied the ships. Besides the capture of Bomarsund on August 16, nothing was accomplished. In Varna a council of war was held to decide upon the course to be pursued against the Russians. Among others, General Stein, or Ferhat Pasha, as he was called after his conversion to Mohammedanism, proposed the landing of troops in Asia in order to drive the enemy from the Cau- casus. But St. Arnaud, who felt that he had not long to live, and, therefore, wished to end his career as gloriously as he could, voted for an attack on Sebastopol, the naval port of the Crimea. He was supported by Lord Raglan, who de- sired nothing more fervently than the destruction of the Russian fleet. So far no less than 13,000 men had perished in the campaign. The remaining force, composed of 56,000 770 1854 BATTLE OF THE ALMA4 soldiers, of whom 6,000 were Turks, was landed, on Septem- ber 14, at Eupatoria on the west coast of the peninsula. To the south of Eupatoria the sea forms a bay which receives the waters of the river Tchernava, flowing past the ruins of Inkermann. Upon the southern side is the fortified city of Sebastopol. On the northern side fortifications had been built to protect the fleet anchored in the bay. Upon the heights overlooking the river Alma, Prince Menzikov, Gov- ernor of the Crimea, had stationed his army of 39,000 men with 106 guns. Although the heights overhanging the Alma are more than five miles long, the Russian troops by which they were defended formed a front of but three miles. This left the extreme left of the Russians open to an attack by a ford opposite the village of Almatack. Against -Menzikov Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord Raglan could oppose 63,000 men and 128 guns. The weakness of the undefended left fank of the Russian army was discovered from the French ships. St. Arnaud laid his plans accordingly. On the morn- ing of September 20 the attack was begun. The warships steamed up the river and opened fire on the enemy. Bosquet, in command of a French division and a Turkish contingent, was assigned to attack ALenzikov's left. He pushed his way through the village of Almatack and forded the river. His Zouaves nimbly climbed the heights and reached the feebly defended plateau. Menzikov, busily engaged in resisting, the advance of the English against his right, at first refused to believe the unwelcome tidings. He endeavored to shift a part of his force from right to left. Meantime the English, under Lord Raglan, were subjected to so fierce a fire from the Russian main position that they could make no headway. They lay passive upon the ground, waiting for the French under Canrobert and Louis Napoleon to begin the attack in front, and thus divert the attention of Menzikov. Wears of their long delay, Lord Raglan took matters into his own 771 1854 FORTIFICATION OF SEBASTOPOL hands. The English infantry rose from the field, advanced upon the Russian main position, and, under a hot fire, stormed the Russian redout with dreadful loss. Attacked on the one side by the English and on the other by the French, Menzikov was compelled to beat a retreat. The battle of the Alma was one of the first modern en- gagements described by special war correspondents in the field. The news of the victory was despatched to London with a rapidity prophetic of the feats performed by latter-day correspondents. Besides the war correspondents, several artists of note followed the armies of the allies. Among the French painters who have perpetuated some of the well- known episodes of the Crimean War were Horace Vernet, who painted a "Battle of Alma," and Paul Alexandre Pro- tais, a pupil of Desmoulins, who first came into note about that time. Another artist who made his early reputation in the war of the Crimea was Adolphe Schreyer. On the Russian side Count Leo Tolstoy served at the front. There he gathered impressions for his stories on the siege of Sebastopol, and for his subsequent great novel of the Napoleonic invasion, "War and Peace." Besides the news of victory, the Crimean War corre- spondents told of the sore plight of the English army, of the ravages of cholera, and of the wretchedly organized hospital system. No preparations had been made for a very long cam- paign. The taking of Sebastopol, it was thought by the English, would present no grave difficulties. But Sebastopol was better prepared to meet an attack than England knew. True it is that early in the war the city might have been taken by a dash from the land and sea. But the chance was now gone. Three days after the defeat of Alma :Menzikov sank seven vessels of the Russian Black Sea fleet in the mouth of the harbor. The city was strongly fortified by Todleben, an ingenious artillery officer. 772 1854 CHARGE OF THE HEAVY BRIGADE Instead of moving directly upon Sebastopol the allies first marched to Balaklava, further to the south, where they would be in constant communication with the ships and could establish a base of supplies. On October 17 an. unsuecesaful attack was made on Sebastopol. At dawn on October 25 the Russians crossed the Tcher- naya and stole rapidly on until their vanguard had reached a position from which they could cannonade Canrobert's Hill, the post most distant from the forces of the allies and nearest the village of Karnara. The main Russian army under Li- prandi soon came up and began to fire upon Caurobert's Hill and the adjacent works. The English replied with the as- sistance of a troop of horse artillery and of a field battery. Two English divisions and two French brigades were sent to the aid of the garrison on the hills. The Russians stic- ceeded in storming Canrobert's Hill and in capturing the next and smaller fortification. Threatened bv overwhelming numbers, the troops on the remaining hills withdrew. Two English cavalry brigades-the Light and the Heavy -commanded by Lord Lucan, had been manceuvring to pro- tect Balaklava. The Light Brigade, under Lord Cardigan, faced the Tehernaya; the Heavy Brigade, under Scarlett, was on the Balaklava side of the ridge. A great body of Rus- sian cavalry swept down the slope upon the Heavy Brigade, and for a moment threw it into disorder. But Scarlett's men charged the Russians. The two opposing bodies of cavalry clashed and seemed to melt one within the other. Then the Russian horsemen yielded, and fled over the ridge whence they had first appeared five minutes before. A disposition on the Russian side to carry off the cap- tured guns induced Lord Raglan to send Lord Lucan an order "to advance rapidly to the front and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns." The order was carried by Captain Nolan, who found Lucan between his two brigades, 778 1854 CHARGE OF THE LIGHT BRIGADE with the Light Brigade beyond Woronzov road. Whose "front" was meant Lucan did not know. Nolan conjectured that "the guns" in question were those which had retired with the retreating Russian cavalry. Already the Russian cavalry had taken protection behind its works toward the Tchernaya, and was supported by Liprandi's troops posted along the Woronzov road, and by Russian guns bearing on the valley, from the ridge and from Fedioukin heights. Although Lord Cardigan of the Light Brigade shared Lucan's misgivings he obeyed the command. With the order, "The Brigade will advance !" the famous charge of the Six Hundred began. Nolan galloped obliquely across the Brigade as it started. He, was killed by the first shell fired from a Russian gun. Into the thick of the Russians Cardigan rode with his men. The exploit has been immortalized by Tennyson: "Half a league, half a league, Half a league onward, All in the valley of Death Rode the six hundred. 'Forward, the Light Brigade ! Charge for the guns!' he said: Into the valley of Death Rode the six hundred." The whole Brigade would have been wiped out after the repulse, when the Russian cavalry rode in pursuit, had not several squadrons of French cuirassiers ridden to the rescue. The fact that the Russians retained the hills which they had captured justified Liprandi in claiming the victory. In November the French infantry in the Crimea num- bered 31,000, the British 16,000, and the Turkish 11,000. Brave as the Moslems undoubtedly were, they were not per- mitted to demonstrate, their value in subsequent encounters. While the allies strengthened their batteries and replenished their magazines, the Russians likewise fortified their posi- tion and gathered reenforcements. It was a race on both sides for the first delivery of the attacL On November 4 the allied commanders definitely arranged for a cannonade 774 ias" BATTLE OF INKERMANN and an assault which was to place Sebastopol at their mercy. The Russians, recognizing their peril, completed the assent- bly of their forces to attack the allies and forestall them. In all, ilenzikov could oppose 115,000 soldiers to the 65,000 available men of the allies. The Russian commander as- signed the main attack to General Soimonov with 19,000 infantry and thirty-eight guns and to General Patilov with 16,000 infantry and ninety-six guins. The regiments in the valley of the Tchernaya, formerly commanded by Liprandi, but now led by Gortschakov, were "to support the general attack by drawing the enemy's forces toward them." The garrison of Sebastopol was to cover with its artillery fire the right flank of the attacking force. After effecting their junction, the two divisions were to place themselves under General Danneberg's command. Soimonov issued under cover of a thick fog from the fortress before dawn on November 5, and to the surprise of the allies began the attack on the English left. The timely arrival of reenforcements under Buller enabled the British to repel the Russians. Soimonov was left dead on the field. The attack of Paulov on the right was no more successful. The Russians were here repulsed with frightful loss. When Danneberg arrived on the scene he found that, with Paulov's battalions on Mlount Inkermann and with those of Soimonov, he could recommence the battle with 19,000 men and ninety guns. Ten thousand of these men were hurled against the English centre and right by Danneberg. The carnage was frightful. Between the hostile lines rose a rampart of fallen men. The Russians would probably have swept away the British by the sheer force of greater numbers, had they not been taken in the flank and repulsed by a French regiment which arrived just in time to save their English comrades. Although the Russian attacking force had been dimin- ished to 6,000 men, it was once more resolutely launched 775 1854 FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE against the enemy, this time against the centre and left of the allied armies. But a simultaneous advance of the French and English not only repulsed the attacking force, but drove it off the field. Shortly before noon the battle was decided. The heavy losses suffered by the Russians enabled the allies to oppose greater numbers of men against IDanneberg's broken battalions and his still unused reserve, and to make use of their guns, now for the first time superior in number to the Russian ordnance. When the Russians saw that success was hopeless, they withdrew gradually, with no attempt on the part of the wearied allies to convert the repulse into a rout. Inkermann was followed by a gloomy winter. The Black Sea was swept by terrible storms which destroyed trans- port ships laden with stores. The horses that charged at Balaklava became unfit for service; the men who had fought at Inkermann languished in field hospitals. In the wretchedly organized lazarets at Scutari the sick and wounded died by scores for lack of proper medical attendance. Shame- ful frauds were perpetrated in filling the contracts for pre- served meats. Finally something like system was established in the hospitals by the energy of Miss Florence Nightingale. Balaklava and Inkermaun had a profound effect upon the diplomatic negotiations of the Powers. Piedmont, which under Victor Emmanuel had maintained its position in Italy despite Austria, offered to take part in the war. Austria saw that she must now act quickly if she wished to pre- serve her European prestige. On December 2 she signed a treaty with England and France binding herself not to nego- tiate separately with the Czar; to defend the principalities which she had occupied in accordance with her compact with Turkey, after their evacuation by the Russians; and to de- liberate with the Powers as to the best course to be pursued if the war were not ended by January 1, 1855. The treaty was intended merely to thwart Piedmont. 776 1854 EVENTS OF 1855 Aberdeen's Ministry Defeated on Issue of Crimean Army Abuses-Pal- merston Forms Ministry and Investigates Abuses-Death of Nich- olas I-Accession of Alexander II-Peace Conference at Vienna- Russell Presents England's "Four Points" Looking to Limitation of Russia's Power and Protection of Turkey-Conference Fails to Agree-Deaths of Raglan and St. Arnaud-Liprandi Fails in Sortie from Sebastopol-French Storm the Malakov-English Take the Redan, but Retire for Lack of Support-Russians Evacuate Sebas- topol-Statistics of the Siege-Allied Fleets Take Kinburn-First Use of Ironclads-Heroic Defence of Kars Ends in Surrender to Russians-Notable Inventions-Notable English Books-Deaths of Charlotte Bronte and Samuel Rogers-Exhibitions of Paintings by Corot and Vernet-Notable American Books-Formation of the "Know-Nothing" Party-It Nominates Fillmore for President- Democrats Nominate Buchanan-Republicans Nominate Fremont- Buchanan is Elected-House Sends Committee to Investigate Kansas Troubles-It Reports in Favor of Free Soilers-House Passes Bill to Admit Kansas as Free-Soil State Senate Defeats It-Indians Ravage Cohahuila, Mexico-Mexico Defeats and Expels Filibusters under Walker and De Bouldon-Alvarez Leads Military Revolution -Flight of Santa Anna-Successive Minor Revolutions Lead to Establishment of Comonfort as President-He Inherits Financial Squabble with Spain-Atrocities of Taiping Rebels Attract Atten- tion of Europe. S soon as Parliament assembled on January 25, the Opposition moved for a commission of inquiry "into the condition of our army before Sebastopol, and into the conduct of those departments whose duty it has been to minister to the wants of that armn." After a debate of two nights the motion for an inquiry was accepted by 305 against 148 votes. As Mr. Molesworth, who was present, wrote: "Never, perhaps, had a government been more decisively defeated. When the numbers were announced, the House seemed to be surprised, and almost stunned by its own act. There was no cheering; but for a few moments a dead silence, followed by a burst of derisive laughter. The Ministers of course resigned." Lord John Russell and Lord Derby, each in turn, tried to form a Ministry, but both failed. Lord Palmerston was then called in, and succeeded in rallying a Cabinet composed 77 DEATH OF NICHOLAS I largely of the members of the old Administration. Thus Lord Granville, Earl Grey, the Duke of Argyll, Lord Claren- don, and William E. Gladstone were retained. The chief change was the appointment of Lord Panmure to take the place of the Duke of Newcastle as Secretary of War. Lord Panmure, better known as Fox Maule, had already served as Minister of War during the six years of Lord Russell's administration, and had shown himself thoroughly capable in that post. Commissions of inquiry were now sent to the Crimea. At the same time diplomatic conferences were reopened at Vienna. The people of England and France bemame incensed as they saw that Austria showed no inclination to fight. Prus- sia flatly refused to assist Austria in any warlike undertaking. On April 21 Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia sent 15,000 men to the Crimea. During the diplomatic parleys of the Powers the siege of Sebastopol wearily dragged along. The commissariat and land-transport systems broke down. The armies were weak- ened by cholera, cold, and starvation. Negotiations for peace were set on foot by Austria. A conference was opened at Vienna under promising auspices. Czar Nicholas, with whom the war was a personal griev- ance, died on March 2-of pulmonary apoplexy, reported the physicians-of bitter disappointment and despair, claimed his people. His son, Alexander II, peace-loving as he was known to be, did not venture to show himself less of a true Russian than his father. The Conference proved a failure. Lord John Russell, England's representative, was instructed to insist upon the admission of Turkey into the Concert of Powers. To secure this end, four principal points were to be considered, now famous under the name of the Four Points- the fate of the Danube principalities, the free navigation of the Danube, the limitation of Russian supremacy in the 778 1855 STORMING OF SEBASTOPOL Black Sea, and the preservation of the integrity of the Otto- man Empire. The attempt to limit Russia's supremacy in the Black Sea was the chief point upon which the Powers could not agree. The operations in the Crimea were vigorously renewed. ILord Raglan died and was succeeded by General Simpson. Long before him, old Marshal St. Arnaud was carried away by disease. His post was taken by Canrobert, who afterward resigned in favor of PMlissier. On August 16 the Russians under Liprandi made a desperate effort to raise the siege by an attack on the allies. The assault was made on the French divisions and on the Sardinian contingent. Liprandi was foiled. Northern Italy was in a delirium of jov when the news came that the banner of Piedmont had been carried to victory over a great Power, side by side with the flag of France. The farsightedness of Cavour's audacious policy was now fully appreciated. The repulse proved fatal to the Russians. Nearer and nearer the French drew to the city. But the ingenious Tod- leben threw up works which also brought the Russians closer to the enemy. Sometimes it seemed as if the allies were the besieged and not the besiegers. Malakov Tower and the Mnam- elon battery in front of it were the scenes of bloody con- flicts. Night sorties were made and repelled. On June 7 the English assaulted the quarries in front of the Redan, and the French assailed the Mamelon. Both attempts were suc- cessful. On the 18th a fierce attack was made on the Redan and the Alalakov batteries. which resulted in failure, because the French did not act with sufficient precision. A simul- taneous assault was made on the Malakov and the Redan on September 5. The French upon capturing the Malakov were to hoist their flag, and thereby signal to the English when to move against the Redan. A brilliant success was won by the Zouaves. Their tricolor waved over the ramparts fifteen 779 1 B55 STATISTICS OF THE SIEGE minutes after they had started to scale the steep heights. The task of the English troops proved more difficult.. They were compelled to advance under a galling fire, but stormed the parapets despite the resistance which they encountered. The attacking force, however, was too small; reenforcement did not come in time, and the remnant of the party was com- pelled to withdraw. It was the story of Balaklava told over again with bloody emphasis-the story of splendid courage on the part of the men, of wretched generalship on the part of their commanders. After the attack the Russians with- drew from the south side of Sebastopol. That portion of the city had been so thoroughly bombarded that Gortschakov could no longer hold out. "It is not Sebastopol that we have left to them, but the burning ruins of the town, to which we ourselves set fire," wrote the Russian commander after his brave defence. He could indeed boast that later genera- tions would "recall with pride" the great siege and its stir- ring events. The investment had lasted eleven months. It involved the construction of seventy miles of trenches and the employment of 60,000 fascines, 80,000 gabions, and 1,000,000 sand-bags. One and one-half million shells and shot were fired into the town from the cannon of the be- siegers. The Russian forces in and about Sebastopol num- bered 150,000; their losses sustained in its defence amounted, in killed, wounded, and missing, to 90,142. The allied armies numbered 80,650 French, 43,000 English, and 20,000 Turks in January, 1855. The forty-one English infantry battalions, which embarked originally, mustered 36,923, and were reenforced by 27,884. Their strength at the conclusion of hostilities was 653 less than it was at the beginning. The wastage, due mainly to disease, thus amounted to 28,537. Hostilities continued for a time in the Crimea. The allied fleet was sent to bombard various sea forts. The most important of these naval operations from a historical stand- 780 1855 FIRST USE OF IRONCLADS point was the expedition against Kinburn, for here it was that the modern ironclad was first tried. On September 5, 1854, Napoleon had ordered the construction of five armored floating batteries which embodied the results obtained in the tests of plating made before the War Ministry's representa- tives at Vincennes. The ships were of 1,400 tons displace- ment, were armed with eighteen 50-pounder smooth-bores, and protected by four inches of iron armor. They were the prototypes of the later ironclads. Not without some mis- givings three of these batteries were sent to the Crimea to join the allied fleet under Admirals Lyons and Bruat. The English squadron consisted of six line-of-battle ships, seven- teen frigates and sloops, ten gunboats, six mortar-boats, and ten transports. The French fleet, besides the three armored batteries mentioned, included four line-of-battle ships, three corvettes, four despatch-boats, twelve gunboats, and five mortar-boats. The combined fleets prepared to attack the Russian works at Kinburn. On October 18 the bombardment began. The ironclads steamed up to within 800 yards of the main fort; the other ships took up positions at distances vary- ing from 1,200 to 2,800 yards. Without appreciable effect the Russian 32-pound and 18-pound shot and shell dropped into the sea from the iron plating of the French ships. What- ever injury was sustained was caused by the entrance of shot and splinters through the portholes. Unable to withstand the well-directed fire of their invulnerable enemy, the Russians hoisted the white flag, after having lost 45 killed and 130 wounded. The allies lost but two killed and had but 45 wounded-all on board the armored ships. "Everything may be expected of these formidable engines of war," wrote Admiral Bruat in his report. The Black Sea was the cradle of the modern ironclad. A brilliant chapter of the war was the long defense of Kars in Armenia, by Colonel Williams and Wassif Pasha, 781 1855 THE BESSEMER PROCESS against an overwhelming Russian army under General lura- viev. Williams sturdily held his ground, bravely repulsed a violent attack in which the Russians lost over 5,000 men, and surrendered on November 27, with all the honors of war, only when starvation stared his little garrison in the face. An achievement of far-reaching consequences was Captain Henry Bessemer's process for manufacturing steel. During the year he took out a patent for his invention of forcing air through liquid molten iron. Other inventions of interest were Brewster's prismatic stereoscope, Garcia's laryngoscope (a mirror for examining the throat), and Drummond's light, patented by Captain Thomas Drummond. Captain Robert Le Mesurier M'Clure of the "Investigator" received the pound;5,000 prize for the discovery of the Northwest Passage and was knighted. Famous English books of the year were Robert Browning's "Aien and Women," Charles Kingsley's "Westward Ho !" and George Henry Lewes's "Life of Goethe." Charlotte Bronte, the novelist, died on the last day of March. She was born in 1824, the daughter of the Rev. Patrick Brontie of Haworth in Yorkshire. In June, 1854, she married her father's curate, the Rev. Archer Bell Nich- olls. Under the pseudonym of Currer Bell she published several novels, in which she displayed great power in the de- lineation of character. The most important of these were "Shirley," "Villette," and the celebrated "Jane Eyre." At the same time her sister, Emily Jane, who published under the name of Ellis Bell, won fame by her novel "Wuthering Heights." She died six years earlier. Samuel Rogers, the English poet, wit, and patron of art, died on December 18, in his ninety-second year. The son of a banker, he traveled extensively while a young man, and applied himself to the study of art and letters. His master- piece, a descriptive poem, "Italy," appeared in 1822. 782 185S COROT AND VERNET This year Jean-Baptiste Corot, the famous French painter of "Paysage Intime," and follower and modifier of the new realistic schools under the lead of Courbet, exhibited his "Souvenir de Alarcoussy," which was purchased later by Napoleon IIT. At the Parisian Art Exposition of this year, Horace Vernet, the celebrated French battle painter, had a Salon devoted entirely to his works. The walls were covered by his immense canvases. In 1814 Vernet, with his father and G6ricault, fought on the Barriere de Clichy, and for his gal- lant conduct there received the decoration of the Legion uf Honor from the hands of Napoleon. After the Restoration, Vernet achieved a great success by his "Battle of Torlosa," which was purchased for 6,000 francs for the M-aison du Roi. At the Salon of 1819 Vernet contested the field with G6ri- cault and Ingres, whose "Medusa" and "Odalisque" were the success of the season. His masterpiece, "The Defence of the Barrier of Clichy," was presented by its purchaser to the Chamber of Peers, and finally transferred to the Louvre. After his election to the Institute, Vernet changed the style of his subjects, charging staggering prices. After many years spent in Rome and with French armies in Algiers and in the Orient, Vernet went to Russia, where he was received with great favor at the Court of the Czar. The highest financial point in his career was marked by a 50,000-franc commission for a portrait of the Russian Empress. He returned to France in good time to receive, in 1855, the greatest honors yet showered upon a French painter. In America Longfellow brought out his "Hiawatha" and Walt Whitman published "Leaves of Grass." At this period the "Know Nothing" Party had come to be a power in poli- tics. The party had started from a New York society formed to check the influence of the Pope, to purify the ballot, and 783 1855 NOMKINATIONS FOR PRESIDENT maintain the Bible in the public schools. It was called the American Party. Wherever the difference of opinion on the Missouri Compromise in 1854 dissolved party ties in the North, multitudes flocked to the new party. Before 1855 it had a million and a half of voters. In 1854 it all but wrecked the old organizations. In Virginia Henry A. Wise, an old Whig, led the Democratic Party, and overthrew the new organization. At the National Convention of the new party, Southern resolutions were adopted by a vote of 80 to 59. The Northern delegates met and repudiated the anti- slavery alliance. In 185.6 the party carried New York, Cali- fornia, and Massachusetts, and the Democrats carried New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Illinois. The American Convention met in Philadelphia Febru- ary 22, and nominated Fillmore and Donelson. On- the same day a convention met at Pittsburg to effect a national organization of the Republican Party, which appointed a National Convention for the 17th of June, the anniversary of Bunker Hill. The Democratic Convention met at Cin- cinnati. Pierce, Douglas, and Buchanan were candidates. On the seventeenth ballot Buchanan was chosen by unanimous vote, with Breckenridge for Vice-President. The Republi- can Convention met and nominated Fremont for President. Abraham Lincoln had 110 votes for Vice-President, but Day- ton received the majority. The election resulted in the choice of Buchanan, who received 1,838,169 votes, to Fremont's 1,341,000, and Fillmore's 875,000. Of the electoral votes, Buchanan received 174, Fremont 114, and Fillmore 8. At another election in Kansas to choose members of the Territorial Legislature, armed bodies from Missouri took possession of the polls and elected a pro-slavery Legislature. Of 6,218 votes cast but 1,310 were legal. Governor Reeder set the election aside and ordered another. May 22 supple- mentary elections were held and the Free State men won. 784 I B55 "BLEEDING KANSAS" June 11 Governor Reeder was charged with fraud in the purchase of the Indian lands, and, on July 26, was removed. Dawson was appointed in his place, with Woodson as acting governor. On July 2 the pro-slavery Legislature met at Pawnee, organized, expelled nine Free State members, and adjourned to the Shawnee Mission, near the Missouri State line. Thereupon the Free State men met at Lawrence, repu- diated the Shawnee Mission Legislature as spurious, and sum- moned a new convention at Topeka. The Convention adopted a Free State Constitution, and nominated Reeder for Con- gress. On October 1 the pro-slavery party elected Whitfield for Congress by more votes than the census list contained. The Free Staters declared the pro-slavery Legislature to have been elected by fraud. A rival government was organized. Discord, violence, and crime prevailed for a year. "Bleed- ing Kansas" became an issue in American national politics. The House resolved by 101 to 93 votes to send a special committee to Kansas to inquire into the anarchy prevailing there. The committee consisted of Howard, Sherman, and Oliver. After several weeks' investigation they returned and reported that every election in Kansas had been carried by Missourians, and the people had been prevented from ex- ercising their rights; that the Legislature was illegal and its acts null and void; that Whitfield held his seat under no valid law, and Reeder had received more votes than he; that a well-devised election law was necessary, and impartial judges should be guarded by United States troops, and that the Topeka Free Soil Convention embodied the will of the majority. A bill admitting Kansas under her free consti- tufion was defeated by 107 to 106, but was subsequently passed by 99 to 97. In the Senate the bill was defeated. The latest attempts to overthrow the Government in Mex- ico, while they brought General Santa Anna once more to the head of affairs, seriously imperiled his position. After 785 1855 1855 LIGHTNING CHANGES IN MEXICAN GOVERNMENT the release of the United States Government from guarding the frontiers of Mexico, the Indians once more became troublesome. Predatory bands of Apaches and Comanches so ravaged the provinces of Cohahuila that the Government had to distribute arms among the inhabitants. A filibuster- ing expedition under Major Walker of Kentucky established itself in Lower California. They proclaimed the indepen- dence of that province, so as to bring about annexation by the United States. A strong display of Mexican forces had the effect of driving them into Texas. Another filibustering expedition led by a French adventurer, who called himself Count Raousset de Bouldon, terrorized the north. From Guaymas this expedition marched inland, but was defeated in the first encounter with a strong Mexican force. Raousset de Bouldon was taken captive and was shot. More serious was a military revolution in the south led by General Al- varez. In his proclamation of Ayutla, Alvarez called for a new Constitution and a new Congress, and promised such reforms as the abolition of personal taxation, of military conscription, and of the feudal system of passports. Other popular leaders like Bravo and Moreno joined the movement. In vain did Santa Anna put forth all the powers of a military dictator. The revolutionists took Monterey, and the insur- rection spread throughout the country until it reached the capital. Santa Anna gathered 1,400 of his best troops and left the city of Mexico to march upon his enemies. Soon the hopelessness of his enterprise became apparent. On the way to Vera Cruz he suddenly abdicated, and embarked on August 19 for Havana. Scarcely had Santa Anna left Mexico when the country was plunged into new disorders. General Car- rera, on August 15, declared for the plan of Ayutla and pro- claimed himself Vice-President. Funds were raised by a forced loan from the clerical orders. Several provinces of Mexico refused to recognize Carrera. Within a month he 786 ADVANCE OF THE TAIPINGS had to abdicate. He was succeeded at first by General Diaz de la Vavaga, and then by Juan Alvarez, the leader of the Puros. While he tried to establish his rule, General Vidini in the north strove to wrest the States of Cohahuila, Tamau- lipas and Nuego Leon from Mexico, to form an independent Republic under the name of Sierra Madre. Before the close of the year Alvarez likewise found his position untenable and resigned. General Comonfort seized the reins of power as substitute President-the thirty-sixth President within forty years, the fifth within four months. He fell heir to the serious international complication with Spain resulting from the unpaid dividends of AMexico's original debt of indemnity to that country. In China the Taiping rebels still holding Lintsing were beset by the Imperial troops. They were expelled from the province of Shantung during the spring, but on the other hand carried their arms up the Yangtse-Kiang as far as Ichang, and eastward from Nanking to the sea. The estab- lishment of the Taiping power at Nanking attracted the at- tention of Europeans. At length a ruthless system of capital executions, by which nearly 100,000 vcidims are believed to have perished, terrorized China. 787 185S EVENTS OF 1856 Kansas Elects Robinson, Free Soiler, as Governor-President Pierce Recognizes Pro-Slavery Legislature-Robinson is Arrested and Im- prisoned for Treason-Pro-Slavery Forces Sack Lawrence, Burn Osawatomie, and Mob Leavenworth-Governor Shannon, Presiden- tial Appointee, Aids Them with United States Troops-He is Re- placed by Geary, who Releases Robinson and Disbands Armed Forces -Brooks Assaults Sumner in Senate-Mexican Government Sup- presses Insurrection in Puebla-Diplomatic Mediation Obviates Troubles with Spain Over Injuries to Spaniards in Mexico-Presi- dent Comonfort Forms Partnership with General Zuloaga-They Quarrel and Zuloaga Seizes Dictatorship-Death of Hleine-Rising German Authors-Death of Biela, the Astronomer-Treaty of Paris Ends Crimean War, Neutralizes Black Sea, and Fixes Mooted Points in International Law-Turkey's Integrity Guaranteed-Powers Sup- port Cavour in His Charge against Austrian Misgovernment in Italy, and Austria Adopts More Liberal Policy-Inflation of Notes Saves Bank of England from Suspension-America Protests against England's Enticing American Volunteers into Her Army-England Apologizes New South Wales Adopts Secret Ballot-Natal is Or- a nized as Crown Colony-Kaffirs under Delusion Commit Suicide by Wholesale-Chinese Seize "Arrow" as Pirate-British Bombard Canton in Reprisal-Chinese Retaliate by Murdering Europeans and Burning Foreign Quarter-Shah of Persia Captures Herat- England Declares War-British under Outram Capture Bushire, Beat Persians at Mohamrah, and Force Shah to Withdraw from Herat-Younger Queen of King of Delhi Persuades Him to Recog- nize Her Son as His Heir-England Forces Him to Recognize Elder Son-Queen Intrigues against England. A T a Territorial election in Kansas on January 15 a ,.A Legislature was chosen, and Robinson was elected Governor under the Free State Constitution. January 26 President Pierce recognized the pro-slavery Legislature in Kansas, and denounced the Topeka movement as an act of rebellion. On February 11 by proclamation he gave warning that opposition to the lawful authorities of the Territory would be suppressed by United States troops, stationed at Fort Leavenworth. Nevertheless, the Free Soil Legislature met at Topeka March 4 and inaugurated Robinson. Under the passionate charge of the pro-slavery Chief Justice, Le- compte, Robinson was indicted with other Free Soil leaders for treason. Robinson was imprisoned. The rest escaped ar- rest. In the spring of 1856 Colonel Buford of Alabama, 788 E z 2 x: ;4 This page in the original text is blank. GEARY RESTORES ORDER IN KANSAS with 1,000 young men from South Carolina and Geor- gia, came to Kansas in military array. In May Lawrence was surrounded by these men, bearing Federal arms taken from the United States armory. Nearly all the pro-slavery leaders were with them. They demanded the surrender of the people's arms. The inhabitants were unprepared to re- sist. The armed pro-slavery force marched through the town, destroying the hotels and printing-offices and the resi- dence of Governor Robinson, doing a damage of 150,000. A large pro-slavery force gathered at Lecompton and another at Santa Fe. Osawatomie was captured, seven men were killed, and thirty buildings burnt. Among the men killed was a son of John Brown. Atchison's pro-slavery force withdrew into Missouri. On September 1, in a municipal election at Leavenworth, an armed band of Missourians killed and wounded a number of Free State men, burnt their houses, and compelled 150 of them to embark for St. Louis. The attack on Lawrence was renewed under the direct authority of the Government. Many lives were lost. The United States troops at Leavenworth were used by Governor Wilson Shannon, President Pierce's appointee. The Free State Legislature was dispersed by the United States forces. Other Missouri forces invaded the Territory and destroyed Brown's village of Osawatomie, but the Free State men compelled them to retreat across the Missouri. Shannon re- signed his office, saying Kansas was as hard to govern "as the devil in hell." In September President Pierce appointed John W. Geary Governor. Arriving at Lecompton he re- leased Robinson and other Free State prisoners on bail, and ordered all hostile forces to disband.- The Free State pre- ponderance among settlers constantly increased. Nearly all the clearing, plowing, and planting was done by Free State men. All manner of irregularities constantly thinned the ranks of volunteers from the South. Kansas, according to XIXth Century-Vol. 11-16 '789 1856 DEATH OF HEINE Greeley's expressive phrase, "was steadily hardening into the bone and sinew of a Free State." The National Convention of the American Party virtu- ally approved the Fugitive Slave law and the Kansas-Ne- braska act. In Congress Sumner delivered a philippic on "The Crime against Kansas," in which he commented se- verely on Senator Butler of South Carolina. Thereupon Preston Brooks brutally assaulted Sumner in his seat in the Senate. As a result of his injuries Sumner was an invalid for four years. In Mexico President Comonfort had barely reached a temporary adjustment of difficulties with Spain when his government was embarrassed by a serious insurrection in Puebla. Government troops in overwhelming numbers put a bloody end to the revolt. Orihuela, the rebel chief, was shot. A new liberal Constitution in Mexico, proclaimed by President Comonfort, did not mend matters much in that distracted Republic. New troubles with Spain arose over unpunished robberies and murders of Spanish subjects. In March diplomatic intercourse between the two countries was severed. Spanish warships were ordered to the Gulf of Mex- ico. At the last moment diplomatic mediation on the part of England and France succeeded in averting war. General Comonfort, finding himself unable to make much headway by constitutional means, invoked the help of General Zuloaga, and established himself once more as military dictator. When it came to dividing the spoils, Comonfort and Zuloaga fell out, and a seven days' conflict resulted. Comonfort's followers were routed. The defeated President had to flee the country. Heinrich Heine, the foremost German lyric poet, died at Paris, February 18. He was a Jew, but, for the purpose of taking up the study of law, he had himself baptized a Christian, and became a doctor of law at the University of 790 18566 POETS IN EXILE Gbttingen. After a journey to England, he gave up law to devote himself exclusively to the pursuit of letters. In 1827 he brought out his "Book of Songs" and followed this up with the first part of his famous "Pictures of Travel." Heine's lyrics, by their unwonted grace and sprightliness, captivated German readers. Shortly after the July Revolution Heine went to Paris, where he became a contributor to several of the foremost literary journals of the day as a writer of French feuilletons. His French prose style was almost equal to his brilliant com- mand of German. On the eve of the famous duel with his rival poet Borne, in 1841, Heine married Matilde Mirat, an uneducated grisette, at the Church of St. Sulpice. In 1844 he published the epic satires "Germany, a Winter's Tale," and "Atta Troll, a Summer Night's Dream," two works which aroused intense indignation in Germany. For the last ten years of his life Heine suffered great agony from a spinal complaint which confined him to his bed, or "mattress grave," as he called it. His powers of wit and raillery never failed him, even to the last. The story is told that as he lay dying his physician put a hand-glass to his lips and said: "Can you hiss (siffler) " Heine mur- mured: "No, not even a play of Scribe." Among German writers of this period, Friedrich Rueck- ert, the lyric poet, and Fritz Reuter, who wrote in Low German dialect, were at the height of their activity. Eman- uel Geibel presented himself as heir presumptive to the man- tle of Heine. Unlike Heine, this poet devoted his muse to the glorification of German patriotism. He achieved such a success that he was soon called to Munich, where he brought out the first "Golden Book of Poets." Other German poets, such as Gottfried Kinkel, the revolutionist; Hoffmann von Fallersleben, and Ferdinand Freiligrath, had to write their poems in exile. 791 1856 TREATY OF PARIS On February 18 Wilhelm von Biela, the great German astronomer, died at Venice. On February 27, 1826, he dis- covered the famous comet named after him. According to Biela's prediction, the comet returned every six years and thirty-eight weeks until 1852. Thereafter it was not seen as a comet during the century. After the fall of Sebastopol Austria made another at- tempt to secure peace. Two of the Powers, France and Rus- sia, were heartily weary of the war. Louis Napoleon had entered the struggle merely to gain military glory and politi- cal prestige. He had succeeded in attaining his ends. Alex- ander II, who had continued the war largely as a matter of filial piety, was ready to seize the first opportunity to con- clude peace with honor. A Congress was therefore assembled in Paris to draw up terms satisfactory to all concerned. On March 30 a treaty was signed which gave Kars back to the Sultan and restored Sebastopol to the Czar. The Porte was admitted to the Concert of Powers. Most important was the regulation of the navigation of the Black Sea. It was de- creed in the treaty that "the Black Sea is neutralized; its waters and its por'ts, thrown open to the mercantile marine of every nation, are formally and in perpetuity interdicted to the flag of war of the Powers possessing its coasts or of any other Power." Patrolling of the sea by small armed vessels was permitted. The Danube was thrown open to the commerce of the world. In order more fully to secure free navigation of the river, the Czar's frontier in Bessarabia was somewhat changed by the cession of certain territory to A1ol- davia under the suzerainty of the Porte. Both Wallachia and Moldavia continued under the protection of Turkey, and were permitted to enjoy their former privileges. The status quo of Servia was assured. It was further stipulated that, following the ancient rule of the Sultans, no foreign war vessels were to pass through the Dardanelles and the Bos- 792 1856 CAVOUR'S TRIUMPH phorus while Turkey was at peace. To ensure the integrity of the Ottoman Empire, England, France, and Austria signed a treaty on April 15 guaranteeing the independence of the Sultan's dominions and declaring that any violation of this would call for war. Besides drawing up the treaty of peace, the Congress of Paris settled various moot points in international law. The plenipotentiaries all agreed to the doctrines: "First, privateer- ing is and remains abolished. Second, the neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war. Third, neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under an enemy's flag. Fourth, blockades in order to be binding must be effective; that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient really to pre- vent access to the enemy's coast." The United States of America did not subscribe to this convention. Russia came out of the conflict defeated but respected. She had received a check in the Black Sea and her frontier line had been readjusted. Still her political losses were trivial. The war most deeply affected Austria. She had played a false game and had lost. The sceptre of European leadership slipped from her. The situation afforded to Bis- marck and Cavour the opportunity each was anxiously awaiting. Cavour had won his first point. At the Conference of Paris he took his place as a representative of Sardinia by right of an alliance with the other great Powers. At the close of the Conference Cavour made a plain statement con- cerning the misgovernment of southern and central Italy and the evils of the Austrian occupation. When Count Buol von Schauenstein protested, the French and English repre- sentatives supported Cavour. The effect of these represen- tations was such that there was a sudden change in Austria's restrictive measures hitherto inflicted upon her Italian do- g93 1856 AuSiaL1A2N sEcCEr BALLur minions. Old Marshal R.ldetzky, the man of the sword, was retired. The sequestered Italian estates were returned to their owners. Emperor Francis Joseph came in person to Milan to proclaim a general amnesty. His brother Maxi- milian, a prince of liberal tendencies, came with his young bride Carlotta to undo the harsh measures of the military government. Maximilian's liberal policy proved too much for the narrow spirit of the Ministry at home. One of the first results of the Crimean war was the threatened suspension of the Bank of England. In Novem- ber it was found that the reserve funds of the Bank had shrunk to pound;1,462,153, while the deposits that might at any moment be drawn out aggregated pound;18,248,003. In these cir- cumstances a special bill of Parliament authorized a new issue of paper notes for pound;180,000 more than the law per- mitted. Furthermore, the war with Russia left behind it a dispute between the Governments of Great Britain and of the United States. Under the provisions of a recent foreign enlistment bill in England, American citizens had been in- duced to enter the British military service. The American Government complained that the practice was in violation of international law. The point was practically conceded by the English Government, which at once put a stop to the enlistment of American citizens and tendered an apology to the Government of the United States. In Australia the first Home Rule Parliament had been opened at Sydney by Sir William Denison. The popular elections were conducted under the famous ballot system which was afterward adopted in other parts of the world. In South Africa the province of Natal was separated from Cape Colony, and became an independent Crown Col- ony with a constitution of its own. The land of the Basutos, no longer under British protectorate, suffered greatly from hostile incursions and cattle raids from the Boers. During 794 1856 AFFAIR OF "'THE ARROW" the summer the Kaffirs fell victims to a fatal delusion. Their prophet Amaxosa foretold the resurrection of all their dead heroes and warriors, on condition that they themselves should put an end to their lives. In all, some 50,000 Kaffirs committed suicide. Emigrants from Cape Colony occupied the Kaffir lands, which had become depopulated. In October the Chinese Emperor, beset as he was by the victorious Taiping rebels, was made to feel the heavy hand of Great Britain. A Portuguese lorcha, "The Arrow," fly- ing the British flag though without British register, was overhauled by the Chinese authorities while at anchor near Dutch Folly. ODe of her crew had been recognized as one of a band of pirates who had committed some recent out- rages. The Taotai of Canton had the offender arrested. Sir John Bowring at Hong Kong at once protested. The Chi- nese Imperial Commissioner Yeh replied that "The Arrow" was not a foreign vessel, and therefore declined to enter into any discussion about her. As a first step toward obtaining reparation the British seized a Chinese imperial junk and held her in reprisal. As this failed to bring the Chinese to terms, Sir Michael Seymour with a British squadron bom- barded and seized the barrier forts at Canton. The fleet proceeded up the river, and, after capturing the Chinese fort of Macao Passage, came to anchor before Canton. An ulti- matum was addressed to Yeh, stating that unless he at once complied with all English demands they would "proceed with the destruction of all the defenses and public buildings of the city and of the Government vessels in the harbor." No reply was vouchsafed. The Canton forts were seized by the Brit- ish and their men-of-war trained guns on the city. All able- bodied Chinamen were called upon by the Viceroy of Can- ton to rally for the defence of their city. The British bom- barded Canton and sank a large fleet of Chinese war junks up the river. A fort at French Folly was reduced, and the Bogue 795 1856 BRITISH WAR WITH PERSIA forts on both sides of the liver were captured. The Chinese retaliated by burning the whole foreign settlement, and by chopping off the heads of all the Englishmen who came into their power. Sir Michael Seymour found his force inadequate to capture Canton, and had to withdraw from his positions while he sent home a request for reenforcements. The situation in India shortly became such that these never reached China. Herat had become a bone of contention between the Shah of Persia and the aged Dost Muhammad Khan. In virtue of a treaty the British sided with Dost Muhammad. When the Shah moved an armv into Herat and captured that capital, England declared war on Persia. Arms and muni- tions in great quantity were presented to Dost Muhammad, together with a subsidy of pound;10,000 a month so long as the Persian war should last. An expedition under Sir James Outram was sent from Bombay to the Gulf of Persia. The capture of Bushire by the English and their victory at Mo- hamrah brought the Shah of Persia to withdraw his troops from Afghanistan. While the war lasted a new danger to the British Indian Empire arose at Delhi. In July the heir-ap- parent of old Bahadur Shah, the reigning King of Delhi, suddenly died. A younger queen was believed to have poi- soned him. She persuaded Bahadur Shah to proclaim her son heir to the throne. An elder brother was recognized as successor by Lord Canning, on condition that he should leave Delhi and take up his royal abode at Kutut. The young Queen was moved to wild wrath. She was a daughter of the House of Nadir Shah, burning with the traditional ambitions of her famcily. Forthwith she took a part in all manner of intrigues against the English. The remarkable outbursts of anti-British feeling that followed have been credited to her. 796 1856 EVENTS OF 1857 Persia Abandons Claims to Lierat-British Fail in Attack cn Fatslhtn, China-Greased Cartridges Offend Religious Prejudice of Natives in British Army-A Widespread Concerted Mutiny Results-Sepoys Shoot Europeans at Meerut--Commander Willoughby Blows tUp Fort at Delhi, with Rebels and Garrison-Mutineers Cowed at Meean Meer-Rebels Murder Garrison at Jhansi-Nana Sahib Murders British at Cawnpore after Surrender-On Approach of Ilavelock with Avenging Army Nana Murders Captive Women and Children and Flees-Havelock Marches to Relief of Lucknow-He Beats Rebels at Bethan-Barnard Marches to Recapture Delhi-He Beats Rebels at Alipano-He Storms Delhi-Hodson Massacres Surren- dered Princes-British Storm Gwalior-Princess Ranee Dies in Its Defence-Havelock Cuts His Way Through to Lucknow Defenders -Campbell Rescues the Garrison-Rebels Retake Cawnpore-They are Expelled by Campbell-Death of Havelock-Outram Expels Rebels from Lucknow-Rose Takes .Jhansi-He Defeats Tantia Topi -President Buchanan Inaugurated-Dred Scott Decision Declares Negroes have No Constitutional Rights-Overbuilding of Railroads Results in Hard Times-Massacre of Immigrants at Mountain Meadow-Morrmons Attack Federal Troops-United States Marshals Dissolve Free Soil Legislature at Topeka-Kansans Repudiate Pro- Slavery Legislature at Lecompton-Death of Quintana, Spanish Poet -Breton Exhibits Epoch-Marking Picture at Paris-Death of Musset, the Poet-Baudelaire Publishes 'Iowers of Evil"-Deaths of Czerny, the Composer, B1ranger, the Poet, and Comte, the Philosopher- Cavour Severs Diplomatic Intercourse Between Sardinia and Austria -He Supports France in International Disputes-William Becomes Regent of Prussia-He Opposes Liberalism-Perry Makes Second Visit to Japan-Treaty of Kanagawa Opens Japan to America- Treaties with European Nations Follow-Mikado Censures Shogun for Admission of Foreigners-England Forms French Alliance against China-Allies Storm Canton. T NHE reverses of the Persians brought the Shah to terms. A treaty of peace was presently concluded in which all claim to Herat was abandoned by Per- sia. Early in the year the British expedition in China re- sumed hostilities. Commodore Elliot with five gunboats and a host of small boats destroyed a fleet of forty armed junks. Next an attack was delivered on the Chinese head- quarters at Fatshan. A flotilla of English small boats cut their way through the long line of war junks, and a landing party under Commodore Harry Keppel attacked the main position. The Commodore's boat was sunk and several others had to be abandoned. A number of the Chinese junks were -97 TH8E SEPOY REBELLION burnt. Keppel's force was found too small to capture Fa- tsharn. Sir Michael Seymour decided to postpone further hos- tilities until the arrival of the promised reenforcements that were to come after Lord Elgin. When these troops failed to arrive in good time, Lord Elgin went to Calcutta himself to hasten their despatch. There he found affairs of far more serious import than those in China. Some time previously rumors had been circulated con- cerning a danger to British rule in India. Mysterious little cakes were circulated far and wide. Lord Canning, the new Governor-General, was blamed for not taking alarm. A dangerous story got abroad early in the year. The Enfield rifle had been introduced. Its cartridges were greased with animal lubricants. The fat of pigs was hateful to Moham- medans, while that of cows was still more of an abomination in the eyes of the Hindus. At Barrackpore, near Calcutta, where Sepoys were stationed, a Laskar reviled a Brahmin as defiled by the British cartridges. The whole of the Ben- gal army was seized with horror. The British authorities claimed that none of the greased cartridges had been issued to the Sepoys. The story of the greased cartridges ran up the Ganges to Benares, Delhi, and Meerut. It was soon noised abroad that the bones of cows and pigs had been ground to powder and thrown into wells with flour and but- ter in order to destroy the caste of the Hindus so as to convert them to Christianity. In March incendiary fires broke out at Barrackpore. The Sepoys from the Nineteenth Regiment refused to receive the cartridges dealt out to them. There was only one white regiment in the 400 miles between Barrackpore and Patna. After remonstrances had been made by the English officers, the Sepoys returned, but there still remained disaffectiona at Benares, Lucknow, Agra, and other places. When it was believed that the excitement was allayed another outbreak 798 1857 REBELS TAKE DELHI occurred at Lucknow. Lawrence's energetic measures main- tained order in Oude. The mutiny was only scattered, how- ever. Within a week Meerut, thirty-eight miles northeast of Delhi, and the largest cantonment in India, was in a blaze. Some eighty-five of a regiment of Sepoy cavalry refused to take the cartridges and were marched off to the guard-hoiise. During the afternoon of the following Sunday, when the European officers were preparing for church, the imprisoned Sepoys were liberated with others. They shot down every European they met. The inutiny became a revolt. The rebellious Sepoys marched on Delhi. When the rebel troops came up from Meerut the English officers prepared to meet them. Their Sepoys joined the mutineers. The revolt spread throughout Delhi. In despair Willoughby blew up the fort with 1,500 rebels who were assaulting it. Only four of his command escaped. Willoughby himself died six weeks afterward from his wounds, while India and Europe were ringing with his name. Fifty Englishmen whom. the rebels had captured were butchered in cold blood. Delhi on Monday evening was in rebel hands. The remaining officers on the Ridge fled for their lives. Their subsequent suffering was one of the liar- rowing features of the great convulsion. The revolution at Delhi opened Lord Canning's eves. He telegraphed for regiments from Bombay, Burrma, Madras, and Ceylon. On May 11 the news of the outbreak at Meerut was brought to the authorities at Lahore. Meean Meer is a large military cantonment five or six miles from Lahore, and there were then some 4,000 native troops there, with only about 1,300 Europeans of the Queen's and the Company's service. There was no time to be lost. A parade was ordered on the morrow at Meean Meer. On the -parade-ground an order was given for a military movement which brought the beads of four columns of the native troops in front of twelve 799 1857 DEFENCE OF LUCKNOW guns charged with grape, the artillerymen with their port- fires lighted, and the soldiers of one of the Queen's regiments standing behind with loaded muskets. A command was given to the Sepoys to stack arms. Cowed, they piled their arms, which were borne away at once in carts by the European soldiers. All chances of a rebellious movement were over for the moment in the Punjab. At three stations-Lucknow, Jhansi, and Cawnpore- the mutiny was of political importance. The city of Luck- now, the capital of Oude, extended four miles along the right bank of the river Goomti. The British Residency and other principal buildings were between the city and the river. The Residency was a walled enclosure, and near it stood a castel- lated structure, the Muchi. Bowun. Since the affair of May 3 Sir Henry Lawrence had been making preparations for a defence in case of insurrection. The native force consisted of three regiments of infantry and one of cavalry, all Sepoys, and there was a European force of 570 men with sixty artil- lerymen. Lawrence brought all the European non-combat- ants within the Residency walls, and established a strong post between the Residency and the Muchi Bowun to com- mand the two bridges which led to the cantonments. The outbreak began on May 30, when the insurgents rushed to the bridges, and, being repulsed by Lawrence, made off to Delhi. At Jhansi the garrison of fifty-five men was butch- ered in cold blood. At Cawnpore, on the Ganges, fifty-five miles southwest of Lucknow, the tragedy was even more terrible. Cawn- pore had been in the possession of the English for more than fifty years. In May sixty-one artillerymen and four Sepoy regiments were there. Sir Hugh Wheeler, the commandant, prepared for the corning storm. He took some old barracks and there quartered the white women, children, and invalids. He accepted from the Nana, who professed great friendship, 800 1857 CAPITULATION OF CAWNPORE 200 Mahrattas and two guns. On the night of June 4 the Sepoy regiment at Cawnpore broke out in mutiny. The Nana overtook them on the road to Delhi and soon returned with them to Cawnpore. Sir Hugh was taken by surprise on the morning of the 6th, when he received a message from the Nana, announcing that his men were about to attack the Englishmen. Sir Hugh prepared for the defence of the barracks. The mutineers first rifled the city and canton- ment, and murdered all the English who came in their way. At noon they opened fire on the intrenchments. From the 6th to the 25th of June the inmates struggled against fearful odds. Though starving, they resisted successfully. On June 25 Wheeler received a proposal that safe passage would be given to Allahabad to those who were willing to lay down their arms. An armistice was proclaimed, and next morning terms were negotiated. The English were to capitulate and march out with their arms and sixty rounds of ammunition for each man, to the river a mile away, where boats would be furnished for all. The next morning they marched down to the boats-the men on foot, the wounded and non-com- batants on elephants and bullocks. They were all huddled together on board the boats. Suddenly, at the sound of a bugle, a murderous fire was opened on them. The women and children, 125 in number, were hurried off to prison, and the men were ordered to immediate execution. All was soon over. Nana was proclaimed Peishwa. English reen- forcements were coming from Allahabad. Nana hastened back to Cawnpore. There, within a few days, more than 200 English were taken prisoners. The men were all butchered, and 80 women and children were sent to join those in a house near the Nana. Great excitement prevailed in Eng- land, where it was believed that these women were subjected to all manner of outrage and made to long for death as an escape from shame. As a matter of fact the widows of the 801 1857 THE WELL OF CAWNPORE royal harem did their utmost to protect the captive women, and these suffered no worse indignity than the compulsory grinding of corn. Meanwhile, Colonel Mill was pushing up from Calcutta. In July he was joined at Allahabad by a column under General Havelock. In July Havelock left Allahabad. for Caawupore with 2,000 men, Europeans and Sikhs. He burned to avenge the massacre of Cawnpore. On the 12th and 15th of July he inflicted three defeats on the enemy. When within twenty miles of Cawnpore, having halted for the night, lie heard that the wvomeni and children at Cawnpore were still alive, and that the Nana had taken the field to oppose iim. Ile broke camp and marched fifteen miles that night. In the mean- time, the crowning atrocity was committed at Cawnpore. The defeated rebels had returned to the Nana. On receiving the tidings of their repulse, he ordered the slaughter of the 200 women and children. They were hacked to death with swords, bayonets, knives, and axes. Their remains were thrown into a well. At 2 P. -.. Havelock toiled on with 1,000 Europeans and 300 Sikhs, and without cavalry and artillery, to meet the 5,000 rebels. Failing to silence the enemy's bat- teries, Havelock ordered a bayonet charge. Nana Sahib with his followers took flight. Hle was never heard from again. The next morning liavelock- marched into the station at Cawnpore, and there found the well filled with mangled human remains, On July 20, having been reenforced by General Neill, whomn he left in charge at Cawnpore, Have- lock set out for the relief of Lucknow. The entire province of Oude was in a state of insurrec- tion. The English had been closely besieged in Lucknow since the last day of AiMay. The garrison had held out for two months against 50,000 Hindus. On July 4 Sir Henry Lawrence was killed by a shell which burst in his room. Two weeks later the rebels, learning of the advance of Havelock 802 1857 BRITISH TAKE DELHI1 to Cawnpore, attacked the Residency with overwhelming force, but the garrison at last compelled them to retire. By the middle of August Havelock advanced toward Bethan with 1,500 men. He met the enemy in force, and overcame him with a bayonet charge. The Mahratta palace was burnt. This ended Havelock's first campaign against Lucknow. Without cavaFry for the pursuit of the enemy, he fell back to Cawnpore. During the months which followed the outbreak at Delhi all political interest was centred in that ancient capital of Hindustan. Its recapture was vital to the reestablishment of British sovereignty. In the absence of railways the Brit- ish were slow to cope with the situation. Every European soldier sent for the relief of Delhi from Calcutta was stopped en route. On June 8, a month after the affair at Delhi, Sir Henry Barnard took the field at Alipano, ten miles away. He defeated the mutineers, and then marched to the Ridge and reoccupied the old cantonment, which had been aban- doned. On June 23 the enemy made a desperate assault, and not long afterward repeated the attempt. Reenforcements came from the Punjab. The British now had 8,000 men. With their 54 guns they could shell the besiegers. At last, at 3 A. M. on September 14, three columns were formed for a sortie, with one in reserve. They rushed through the broken walls, and the first and second columns met at the Kabul Gate. Six days of desperate fighting followed. On September 20 the gates of the old fortified palace were broken open, but the inmates had fled. Thus fell the imperial city. The British army lost 4,000 men, among them Brigadier- General Nicholson, who led the storming party. The great mutiny at Delhi was stamped out, and the British flag waved over the capital of Hindustan. This was the turning-point of the Sepoy mutiny. 803 1857 DEATH OF THE AMAZON RANEE The capture of Delhi was followed by acts of barbarous retribution. Hindu prisoners were shot front the mouths of cannon. Hodson, of "Hodson's Horse," a young officer who had once been cashiered for high-handed conduct in India, offered to General Wilson to capture the King and the royal family of Delhi. General Wilson gave him authority to make the attempt, but stipulated that the life of the King should be spared. By the help of native spies Hodson dis- covered that when Delhi was taken the King and his family had taken refuge in the tomb of the Emperor Hoomayoon. Hodson went boldly to this place with a few of his troopers. He found that the royal family of Delhi wvere surrounded there by a vast crowd of armed adherents. He called upon them all to lay down their arms at once. They threw down their arms, and the King surrendered himself to Hodson. blext day the three royal princes of Delhi were captured. Hlodson borrowed a carbine from one of his troopers and shot the three princes dead. Their corpses, half naked, were exposed for some days at one of the gates of Delhi. The mutineers had seized Gwalior, the capital of the Maharajah Scindia, who escaped to Agra. The English had to attack the rebels, retake Gwalior, and restore Scindia. One of those who fought to the last on the mutineers' side was the Ranee, or Princess of Jhansi, whose territory had been one of the British annexations. She had flung all her energies into the rebellion. She took the field with Nana Sahib and Tantia Topi. For months after the fall of Delhi she con- trived to baffle Sir Hugh Rose and the English. She led squadrons in the field. She fought with her own hand. She was foremost in the battle for the possession of Gwalior. In the garb of a horseman she led charge after charge, and she was killed among those who resisted to the last. Her body was found upon the field, scarred with wounds enough to have done credit to any hero. Sir Hugh Rose paid her 804 1857 RELIEF OF LUCONOW1 a well-deserved tribute when he wrote: "The best man upon the side of the enemy was the woman found dead, the Ranee of Jhansi." Lucknow was still beleaguered. Late in September Havelock had prepared for a second attempt to relieve that place. Sir Colin Campbell had reached Calcutta as Coin- mander-in-Chief. Sir James Outram had come to Allahabad on September 16. lIe joined Havelock with 1,400 men. With generous chivalry the "Bayard of India" waived his rank in honor of Havelock. "To you shall be left the glory of relieving Lucknow," he wrote. "I shall accompany you, placing my military service at your disposal, as a volunteer." On September 20 Havelock crossed the Ganges into Oude with 2,500 men. Having twice defeated the enemy, on Sep- tember 25 he cut his way through the streets of Lucknow. Late in the day he entered the British cantonments. The defence of the Residency at Lucknow was a glorious episode in British annals. It has been sung in immortal strains by Alfred Tennyson. For four months the garrison had watched for the succor which came at last. The surrounding city re- mained for two months longer in rebel hands. In November Sir Colin Campbell with 2,000 men took charge of the in- trenchments at Cawnpore, and then advanced against Luck- now with 5,000 men and 30 guns. He defeated the enemy and carried away the beleaguered garrison with all the women and children. Still the British were unable to disperse the rebels and reoccupy the city. Sir Colin Campbell left Outram with 4,000 men near Lucknow. He himself returned to Cawn- pore. On approaching that city he heard the roll of a dis- tant cannonade. Tantia Topi had come again to the front. He had persuaded the Gwalior contingent to break out in mutiny and march against Cawnpore. General Windhain resisted his advance. The whole city was in the hands of 805 1B7 ROSE DEFEATS TANTIA TOPI the rebel Sepoys, but the bridge of boats over the Ganges was saved to the British. Sir Colin Campbell marched over it, and in safety reached the intrenchment in which Windham was shut up. He routed the Gwalior rebels and drove them out of Cawnpore. General Havelock the day after he left Lucknow succumbed to dysentery. Throughout the British Empire there was universal sorrow. Havelock's victories had aroused the drooping spirits of the British nation. The subsequent history of the Sepoy revolt is largely a recital of military operations for the dispossession of the rebels and the restoration of British supremacy. Sir Colin Campbell, now Lord Clyde, undertook a general and suc- cessful campaign against the rebels of Oude and Rohlikund, and Sir James Outram drove them out of Lucknow, and reestablished British sovereignty in the capital of Oude. At the same time a column under Sir Hugh Rose and another under General Whitlock did a similar work in Central India and Bundelkund. Rose's campaign was peculiarly difficult. It was carried out amid the jungles and ravines of the Vind- hya Mountains, and in the secluded regions of Bundelkund. He fought battles against baffling odds, and captured the stronghold of Jhansi. He then marched against Tantia Topi, who had an army of 40,000 near Kalpi, which he routed and scattered. Having brought his campaign to a close, he con- gratulated his troops on having marched 1,000 miles, de- feated and dispersed the enemy, and captured 100 guns. The old King of Delhi was put on trial, convicted, and sen- tenced to transportation. He was sent to the Cape of GEd Hope, but the colonists there refused to receive him. The last of the lifle of the Great Moguls of India had to go beg- ging for a prison. He was confined in 1859 in Rangoon. Toward the close of the year, when the Indian mutiny appeared to have spent its force, Lord Elgin returned from Calcutta to Hong Kong. In the meanwhile the English, 806 1857 THE DRED SCOTT DECISION French, and American Governments had exchanged notes on the subject of Chinese outrages against Christians. Louis Napoleon was found to be in hearty accord with Englaad's desire to make an example of China. Baron Gros was sent to China charged with a mission similar to that of Lord Elgin. The United States declined to join in active meas- ures against China. In the United States of America James Buchanan had become President at sixty-six years of age. He had served as a Member of Congress from 1821 to 1831; then as -Min- ister to Russia from 1832 to 1834; United States Senator from 1834 to 1845; Secretary of State under Polk from 1845 to 1849, and Minister to Great Britain from 1853 to 1856. Buchanan's first message repeated the assurance that the discussion of slavery had come to an end. The clergy were found fault with for fomenting the disturbances. The President declared in favor of the admission of Kansas with a Constitution agreeable to the majority of the settlers. He also referred to an impending decision of the Supreme Court with which lie bad been acquainted and asked acquiescence in it. This was the decision in the Dred Scott case, announced by Chief Justice Taney two days after Buchanan's inaugu- ration. An action had been begun in the Circuit Court in Missouri by Scott, a negro, for the freedom of himself and children. He claimed that he had been removed by his mas- ter in 1834 to Illinois, a free State, and afterward taken into territory north of the compromise line. Sanford, his master, replied that Scott was not a citizen of Missouri, and could not bring an action, and that he and his children were Sanford's slaves. The lower courts differed, and the case was twice argued. The decision nullified the Mf issourt restriction, or, indeed, any restriction by Congress on slavery in the Territories. 807 1857 MOUNTAIN MEADOW MASSACRE "We think they (negroes) are not included under the word citizen in the Constitution, and can therefore claim none of the rights and privileges" of that instrument This made slavery the organic law of the land. Benton said that it was '4no longer the exception, with freedom the rule, but slavery the rule, with freedom the exception." It was a year of financial distress in America, which recalled the hard times of twenty years before. There had been a too rapid building of railway lines in comparatively undeveloped regions where they could not pay expenses for years to come. Settlers did not come so quickly as was ex- pected, and a fall in railway shares resulted. The United States Treasury was empty. There was great loss, yet the country suffered less than in 1837. During the summer the Mormons in Utah gave new trouble. Brigham Young, after Utah was excluded from the Union, destroyed the records of the United States courts, and practically drove Federal judges from their seats and other officials from the Territory. The Mormons now numbered 40,000 members, and felt strong enough to defy the Government. In September the Indians, believed to have been insti- gated by the Mormons, massacred an immigrant train of 120 persons at Mountain Meadow in Utah. Alfred Cumming, Superintendent of Indian Affairs on the upper Missouri, displaced Young as Governor of Utah. Judge Eckles of Indiana was appointed Chief-Justice of the Territory. A force of 2,500 men under Colonel A. S. Johnston was sent to Utah to suppress interference with the laws of the United States. On the arrival of the Federal troops in the autumn, they were attacked on October 6 by the Mormons, their sup- ply trains were destroyed, and their oxen driven off. John- ston was compelled to find winter quarters at Fort. Bridger. Early in the year a Legislature had met at Topeka, Kan- sas, and was immediately dissolved by the United States 808 i867 DEATH OF MUSSET marshals. A Territorial Legislature also met at Lecompton and provided for a State Constitution. The people of Kan- sas utterly refused to recognize the Legislature chosen by the Missouri invaders, and both parties continued to hold their elections. Manuel Jos6 de Quintana, the Spanish playwright and patriotic poet, died on March 11, at Madrid. He was one of the many Spanish writers whose first poetic inspirations were derived from the stirring incidents of the Peninsular War. On the return of King Ferdinand VII, Quintana had to ex- piate his liberal sentiments by a term of six years in the prison of Pampeluna. The revolution of 1820 brought about his release, but three years later he was banished again from Madrid. An ode on King Ferdinand's marriage restored him to royal favor. He was appointed tutor to the Infanta Isabella, and in 1833 was made Minister of Public Instruc- tion. Two years before his death Queen Isabella publicly crowned the poet with a wreath of laurel in the hall of the Cortes. Jules Breton, the famous French pupil of Drolling and of Devigne, exhibited this year at Paris one of his greatest works, "La B6n6diction des Bl6s." It was of this picture that Hamerton, the author of "Painting in France," wrote: "It is technically a work of singular importance in modern art for its almost perfect interpretation of sunshine." Alfred de Musset, the French lyric poet, died on AMay 1, in Paris. Born in 1810, the scion of an old aristocratic fam- ily, he was brought up with the Duke of Orleans. They remained intimate friends until the Duke's death in 1842. Before his twentieth year De Musset took rank among the romantic writers of Paris by two volumes of poems. In 1833 De Musset wvent to Italy together with George Sand, but in Venice the lovers quarreled and separated. The char- acter of Stenio in George Sand's novel "Lelia" was recog- 809 1857 5DEATH OF BECKANGER nized as a personification of De Musset. Alfred de Musset himself drew on these experiences for his novel, "Confessions of a Child of the Century," published upon his return from Italy in 1836. George Sand, stung by De Musset's allega- tions concerning her, gave her version of their relations in the famous book, "She and He," whereupon De Musset's brother Paul published an even less lovely version of the affair, in his book. "He and She." As a lyric poet, Alfred de Musset claims foremost rank among the modern writers of France. His verse, like that of his contemporaries, Byron, Lermontov, Leopardi, Lenau, and Heine, is tinged with sadness and pessimism. During this same year in France the pessimism of Al- fred de Musset was outdone by Baudelaire's famous collection of poems, "Flowers of Evil." Baudelaire, as a poet, took a unique place in French literature. Following in the foot- steps of Victor Hugo and the American, Poe whose works he was the first to translate into French-he outdid both these masters of the grotesque in bizarre creations. Carl Czerny, the eminent pianist and teacher, died on July 15, at the age of sixty-six, at his birthplace, Vienna. In all he published over 1,000 compositions, the most lasting of which were his pedagogic piano studies. As a musical writer he gained recognition by a work on the history of music. On the day following Czerny's death, Jean Pierre B ranger, the great French song writer, died at Paris, at the age of seventy-seven. In his fourteenth year he was appren- ticed to a printer, and learned the first principles of versifica- tion while setting up the poems of Andre Chenier. On his own behalf he soon printed a small volume of songs entitled "A Garland of Roses." Lucien Bonaparte, the enlightened brother of the First Consul, took the young poet under his patronage, but, unfortunately for Beranger, soon had to 810 1857 DEATH OF COMTE leave France, an exile. On the fall of Napoleon BWranger took it upon himself to sing the glory of the fallen Empire in elegiac strains. A severe reprimand was administered to him by the Government. His second series of Napoleonic songs, published in 1821, cost him his place and three months' confinement in the prison of St. Pelagie; while his third (1828) subjected him to nine months' imprisonment in La Force and a fine of 10,000 francs. The fine was paid by his admirers, and the prison in which he was incarcerated became the gathering place of the most celebrated literary men of the day. The songs which he composed during this period helped to bring about the revolution of 1830. After the revolution of 1848 he was elected to the Constituent As- semnbly, but soon resigned that post. His declining years were spent at Passy. Isidore Auguste Comte, the metaphysical writer and founder of modern positive philosophy, died September 5 at Paris. Comte's teachings are a combination of empiricism and communism. The first of his numerous works appeared in 1822-"Plan of Scientific Work Necessary for Reorganiz- ing Society." Comte's most important work, "A Course of Positive Philosophy," was published in six volumes, 1830- 1842. In England and America Comte's works found many illustrious interpreters, and congregations adhering to the "Positivistic Ritual" were formed at several places in England. Among his most fervent adherents were Miss Martineau, R. Congreve, John Stuart Mill, Buckle, Lewes, Bridges, and the American, Carev. Positivism also found some noted ex- ponents in Italy and Germany. Early in the year Archduke Maximilian had granted a general amnesty to all political offenders in northern Italy. Sharp objections to this were raised at Vienna. The growing national spirit of the Ital- ians gave grounds for apprehension. Secretly encouraged by Cavour, the Sardinian press assailed Austria with great 811 1857 TREATY OF KANKAGAWA freedom. The revolutionary societies, subsidized by the Sar- dinian Government, agitated for another national uprising. The Austrian Government, informed of this by its spies, lodged a formal protest with the Sardinian Government. Cavour ignored the protest. The relations between the two countries grew strained. Presently diplomatic intercourse between Austria and Sardinia was severed. Cavour first made overtures to England for armed support, but his efforts proved unavailing. Thereupon he ingratiated himself with Louis Napoleon by supporting the French contentions throughout the diplomatic controversies concerning the Dan- ubian principalities. Meanwhile, in Germany, it had become an open secret that King Frederick William of Prussia was mentally un- sound. Presently his brother, Prince William, the hated foe of Liberalism in Prussia, was appointed Regent. For some time still he retained the Ministry of iMlanteuffel in office, but from the first he showed himself opposed to his brother's semi-liberal tendencies. Commodore Perry's second visit to Japan resulted in serious consequences for that country. The Mikado, having first refused to accede to the conclusion of a treaty of com- merce with the United States of America, was finally per- suaded by his old Minister, the Taikio, to let his commission- ers sign the treaty at Kanagawa. Townsend Harris, on be- half of the United States, signed the treaty on June 17. After the ratification of the treaty of Kanagawa, similar treaties were concluded with Holland, Russia, Great Britain, and France. These infractions of ancient Japanese reserve did not please the daimios, or lords of Japan. A popular remonstrance to the Mikado was issued in Miako (Kioto), against subservience to foreigners. The blame for the treaties was laid upon the Shogunate. Late in the year an imperial edict appeared, which was later declared to be a 812 1857 ALLIES ASSAULT CANTON forgery. It censured the Shogun for not "quelling the bar- barians," and summoned him from Yeddo to the imperial presence at Aliako. On the day that this letter reached the Shogun, late in December, a meeting of all the great daimios was called at Yeddo. They met on the night of December 29 in the throne room of the castle of Yeddo. Their deliberations did not end until two in the morning of the following day. The spirit of the meeting was such that it was plain that a revolution was impending. On December 12 Lord Elgin sent to Commissioner Yeh at Canton a note apprising him of his arrival as plenipoten- tiary from Queen Victoria to demand prompt fulfilment of Great Britain's demand. Commissioner Yeh made a long reply, the substance of which was that injuries had been committed on both sides, so that both sides had best pay their own losses. This reply failed to satisfy the foreign com- missioners. Orders were at once given to attack Canton. By the middle of December Honan was occupied. The next ten days were spent in bringing up troops and stores. On December 28 the assault was undertaken. The attacking force numbered about 5,000 English, 1,000 French, and 750 Chinese coolies. Linsfor- was captured in half an hour. This success was offset by the explosion of a magazine in the fort. On the following day the city itself was assaulted. The British forced the gates, while the French seized the fort on a hill commanding both the city and the Chinese camp in the northern hills. Within two hours the approaches to the great city of Canton were in the hands of the allie Their total losses were less than 150 men. The Chinese for- tifications were blown up. Still Commissioner Yeh did not give in. He ordered the execution of all Chinamen who had entered into relations with the invaders. XIXth Century-Vol. II-17 1857 8113 EVENTS OF 1858 Anglo-French Commission Set to Govern Canton--Allies Refuse to Treat with Chinese Peace Commissioners-They Bombard Taku Forts- Captain Tatnall's Famous Remark-Treaty with China-Importa- tion of Opium Permitted-Foreign Embassy at Pekin Refused- Manchus Besiege Nanking-Japanese Shogun is Replaced by Kami, a Progressive Regent-Regent Arrests Mito-ko, Leader of Conser- vative Daimios, for Substituting His Son for Shogun-He is Ac- auitted-LIis Judges and Hle are Degraded-The Prime Minister, Rlanabay, is Deposed-Lincoln and Douglas Debate on Slavery- Kansas Vote Almost Unanimously for Free Soil-Government Makes Peace with Mormons-Atlantic Cable is Laid-Pony Express Estab- lished Between St. Louis and San Francisco-Death of Rachel, the Actress-Rose Defeats Tantia Topi atc Morar-Napier Routs the Retreating Army-Reactionary Government of Zuloaga Leads to Civil War and Disorders in Mexico-He Levies on Foreign Mer- chants-England, France, and United States Protest-Juarez Organ- izes Liberal National Party-Napoleon III Plots with Cavour for Expulsion of Austria from Northern Italy, and Division of the Country Between France and Sardinia-Cavour Deceives Garibaldi into Support of the Plan. N January a three detachments of English and O J French soldiery were sent into Canton. They took into custody Commissioner Yeh and Governor Pihkwei. Yeh was sent to Calcutta a prisoner of war. The Government of Canton was entrusted to an Anglo-French commission. From Canton Lord Elgin and Baron Gros addressed their demands direct to Pekin. The Chinese Minister of State appointed peace commissioners, but Lord Elgin de- lined to see them. The Chinese Minister refused to appoint others. Thereupon the foreign commissioners announced that they would proceed up the Peiho to Tien-tsin. To the irritation of Lord Elgin the fleet was slow in assembling in the Gulf of Pechili. At length, on May 19, the allied squad- rons proceeded to the mouth of the Peiho, and summoned the Taku forts to surrender. No reply having been vouch- safed, fire was opened on the forts on the following day. After a short-range bombardment lasting more than an hour 814 OPIUM FORCED ON CHINA the Chinese batteries were silenced. Landing forces com- pleted the capture of the fort. It was on this occasion that Captain Tatnall of the American navy, without direct orders from home, joined in the attack with the famous remark: "Blood is thicket than water." The Chinese general committed suicide, and the Chinese lost the best part of their artillery. The allied fleet proceeded up the river to Tien-tsin, where the plenipotentiaries took up their quarters. The Chinese Government now sent three commissioners to confer. One of them was Ke-Ying, who had served in the same capacity, during the preceding troubles with England. Unfortunately for him, some of his letters had been found in which he showed himself to be bitterly anti-foreign. This ruined Ke- Ying's standing with the foreign commissioners, and he was recalled to Pekin, where he was summoned before a board of punishment for "stupidity and precipitancy." As an act of grace he was permitted to commit suicide. With the re- maining commissioners the British envoys soon adjusted matters to their own satisfaction. It was agreed that opium might be imported into China on payment of fifty dollars duty per chest. On one point the Chinese were firm. They objected to the admission of permanent foreign ambassadors at Pekin, on the ground that their residence might be attended with peril to the envoys as well as to the Chinese Government. This argument appeared the more plausible, in view of the formidable Taiping rebellion, then still at its height. After many parleys, Lord Elgin at last consented to waive this demand until a more favorable occasion, but he insisted that it would be indispensable for a British Minister to visit Pekin during the following year to exchange ratifications of the treaty. The Manchu troops, under Tseng Kwofan and Chang Kwoliang, renewed the siege of Nanking. After the invest- 815 i8s" 1858 JAPANESE REGENT SUPERSEDES SHOGUN ment had continued nearly the whole year, Chung Wang left the city before it was completely surrounded. Hle col- lected 5,000 of his Taiping followers, but was defeated in a vigorous attempt to cut his way through a large imperial force. At length, however, he succeeded in reaching Nan- king by forced marches. In Japan, during spring, a Regent had been appointed to take the place of the Shogun. He was Ee Kamono Kami. From the outset he declared for the new order of things. He was opposed by Mito-ko, the leader of the daimios, who objected to the foreigners. To quell this opposition the Re- gent ordered the arrest of M ito-ko and his principal sup- porters and deprived them of their revenues. As a result of this a great number of the armed retainers of the arrested chieftains took to the road as Ronins, or Floating Men. Later in the year it was claimed that the Shogun had died, and a boy was put into the place of power. Mito-ko claimed the place for his own son, who had been adopted by the third son of the ninth Shogun. Thereupon a number of Mito-ko's foremost retainers were arrested and brought to Yeddo for trial. The judges who refused to convict them were de- graded. At the same time the Empress intrigued with the Regent to marry the Emperor's younger sister to the boy Sho- gun. The quarrel between the Regent and Mito-ko became more serious. Incidentally it had the effect of opening up the country to foreign trade. Mito-ko was degraded from all his offices, as was his natural son, the Governor of Osaka. Mito-ko's son and heir was commanded to keep guard on his father. His chief retainer was ordered to commit hara-kiri, the Japanese form of suicide. Some of AMito-ko's retainers took refuge at the British Legation in Tozenji. Other oppo- nents of the Regent were treated in like manner, and many of the lesser chieftains were executed, or banished to outly- ing islands. At last M1anabay, the former Prime Minister, 816 THE LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATE who was cognizant of all the secrets of the late coup d'gtal, was asked to withdraw. Even some of the imperial household came under the ban. In the United States of America the State of Illinois was this year the arena of a peculiar contest. Senator Doug- las had taken so prominent a part in the defeat of the Lecomp- ton measure, providing a special constitution for Kansas, that many leading Republicans elsewhere, by a unanimous vote, wanted him to return to the Senate, but this did not find favor in Illinois. Abraham Lincoln presented himself as a candidate for Douglas's seat. At Springfield, June 17, Lincoln opened his canvass with the firm declaration that the Union "can not permanently endure half slave and half free." Four months afterward Governor Seward at Roches- ter, New York, on October 25, made a like presentation of what was to come, and said: "These antagonistic systems (free and slave labor) are continually coming into close con- tact. It is an irrepressible conflict between opposing and enduring forces; and it means that the United States must and will, soon or late, become either an entirely slave-holding or entirely a free-labor nation." Douglas and Lincoln joined issue, and an oratorical contest of unequaled interest was fought out before immense audiences up to the eve of the State election. In the Legislature election Douglas received 54 votes, Lincoln 46. The Territorial Legislature of Kansas had passed an act submitting the Lecompton Constitution to vote on June 4. The act provided that "the rights of property in slaves now in the Territory shall in no manner be interfered with." The Missourians were not present to vote, and the full poll was-for the Lecompton Constitution with slavery 128, and without slavery 24; against the Lecompton Con- stitution 10,226. Henceforth Kansas was virtually a "free State." 817 1858 LAYING OF ATLANTIC CABLE In June an expedition was sent against the Mormons. General Johnston found Salt Lake City deserted, and the Mormons departed South. A compromise was at length en- tered into, and peace made by Governor Cummings. Two steamers, during this year, began to lay the Atlantic cable in mid-ocean; the cable parted when five miles were laid. When the laying of the cable was completed, on August 5, the English directors telegraphed to the directors in Amer- ica: "Europe and America are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the Highest; on earth, peace, good-will toward men." Queen Victoria sent a message to President Buchanan expressing her satisfaction at the completion of the work so likely to preserve harmony between England and the United States. The message required an hour for its transmission. The insulation, however, proved faulty, and on September 4 the wire ceased to work. Another company had to be organ- ized. During the same year the first overland mail by "pony express" arrived from San Francisco at St. Louis in twenty- three days and four hours. Eliza Rachel, the great French tragedienne, died at Tou- lon. On the stage of Paris she shone without a rival in the classic masterpieces of Corneille, Racine, and Voltaire. A professional tour through England and America in 1855 broke down her health. Meanwhile in India the city of Gwalior was unexpectedly abandoned to the rebels, who at the beginning of June had 18,000 men under arms under Tantia Topi, with all the artillery of Scindia. Sir Hugh Rose again went to the front. On June 16 he defeated the rebels at _Mlorar, and on the 18th, having been joined by a column under Brigadier Smith, he stormed and captured the rebel intrenchments. With 6,000 men and 30 field-pieces Tantia Topi then retreated, but two days afterward Brigadier Robert Napier, who became Lord Napier of _Magdala, dashed among the retreating forces 818 1858 REACTIONARY GOVER'NMENT IN MEXICO with only 600 horsemen and six field-guns, p1ut the arry of several thousand to flight, and recovered most of the artillery. This action was regarded as one of the most brilliant exploits in the whole campaign. Tantia Topi evaded pursuit for ten months longer. Making his way to the Nerbuddar River with a considerable body of men, lie still clung to the hope of reach- ing the western Deccan, and there creating a new Mfahratta empire in territory which the British had held for fifty years. He was driven back by the Bombay troops. The British hunted him all over India. Late in December Lord Clyde, who had been Sir Colin Campbell, was able to announce that the campaign was at an end. In Mexico the reactionary party returned to power with the new provisional government of Zuloaga. Most of the liberal measures of his predecessors were revoked. The laws against the privileged orders of the Church and of the army were annulled. The greater part of the Republic opposed this change of system. The most important trading towns and seaports would not recognize the authority of the central government. Generals Miramon, Osollo, and others were sent against the rebels, but failed to pacify the country. The lack of public funds led to such doubtful measures as an enforced loan and high-handed exactions from foreign com- merce. Formal protests against this state of affairs were lodged by the Governments of Great Britain, France, and the United States, but remained unheeded in the general con- fusion of affairs. In the province of Yucatan, which had proclaimed its independence, civil war raged. Predatory bands of guerrillas terrorized the provinces of Puebla, Xalisco, and Guanajuato, and even penetrated into the suburbs of the capital. Robberies and military executions became every- day, affairs. From the island of St. Thomas the exiled Santa Anna issued a proclamation demanding a renewal of his power. A new national party of liberal principles was 819 1858 CONFERENCE OF PLOMBEIRES formed at Vera Cruz under the leadership of Dr. Benito Juarez, an educated Indian. No sooner had the reorganization of the Danubian prin- cipalities been settled by the International Conference which met early in the year than the real significance of Cavour's stand throughout the controversy became apparent. Napo- leon IIi began to show a marked sympathy with the national cause of Italy. The French Emperor's interest in Italian affairs was genuine. In his early youth he had joined the societv of Carbonari, and had fought with them as a volun- teer. A close student of the great Napoleon's imperial policy and of French republican aspirations, he believed in the old military doctrine that Savoy should belong to France to se- cure the French frontier toward the south. Savoy had al- ready been incorporated with France from 1792 to 1814, so that, as in the case of Alsace, it was a popular theory in France that the people of the duchy were more French than Italian. Now Napoleon III and Cavour undertook to de- velop their Italian plans. Two incidents about this time gave an immediate stimulus for action. One Felice Orsini, a Roman refugee, with other conspirators, had attempted to as- sassinate the French Emperor with an infernal machine. As the Emperor was driving through the streets of Paris three shells were exploded, killing two persons outright and wound- ing many. Napoleon III escaped unharmed. For a while it -was believed that the relations between the French Govern- ment and the Sardinians would become strained; but Cavour so skilfully turned the situation to account that a closer un- derstanding resulted. On April 19 Austria sent an ultima- tum to Sardinia demanding instant cessation of the support of the anti-Austrian movement in northern Italy. Cavour lost no time in transmitting the correspondence to the French envoy in Sardinia. Napoleon III invited Cavour to meet him in July at Plombieres. The result of their negotiations 820 1858 CAVOUR TRICKS GARIBALDI was not made public, nor even communicated to Louis Napo- leon's Ministers. Although he revealed certain parts of the arrangement to such useful men as Mazzini and Garabaldi, Cavour divulged the whole plan only to his sovereign. No written engagement was drawn up. The oral agreement, judging from Cavour's subsequent admission, was that if Sardinia would incite Austria to hostilities on some pretext that would admit outside intervention, France would inter- fere. Austria was then to be expelled from Venetia as well as from Lombardy. Victor Emmanuel was to become King of northern Italy, annexing thereto the Roman legations and the principality of Tuscany with adjacent territory. As a reward for the aid of Napoleon III, Savoy, and possibly Nice, were to be turned over to France. Closer relations between the two dynasties were to be established by a mar- riage between the Emperor's cousin, Prince Jerome Napo- leon, and Victor Emmanuel's daughter, Clotilde. From this time Cavour strained every nerve to bring about a war before Napoleon III might draw back. To accomplish these ends the Italian statesman had to play a dangerous double game. Summoning Garibaldi, whose revolutionary aims made him obnoxious to Napoleon III, Cavour made him privy to his warlike plans. Garibaldi promised to take the field at the head of a free corps of his own. The participation of these firebrands in the coming war had to be concealed from Napo- leon III. On the other hand, Garibaldi was kept in ignor- ance of the secret clause that Nice, his own birthplace, was to be surrendered to the French. No less Machiavellian were Cavour's labors to arouse the fighting spirit of his sovereigns Savoyards, and to exact from them the last centesimo for the coming war, only to turn their own country over to a foreign despot. Odious, too, was the bargain by which the young daughter of his sovereign was to be delivered over to so hard- ened a roug as Prince Jerome. 821L 1858 EVENTS OF 1859 .Announcement of Alliance Between France and Sardinia Arouses Opposition of World Financiers-These Bring Pressure to Bear on Napoleon III to Recede-Cavour Forced to Accede to Mu- tual Disarmament of Austria and Sardinia-Austria, Overcon- fident, Issues Ultimatum for Sardinia's Instant Disarmament- Cavour's Caustic Reply Forces Austria to Take Initiative in Hos- tilities-Austrian Troops Cross Ticino-France Declares War against Austria-Giulay, Austrian Commander, Botches Campaign -Italians Seize Commanding Positions-Napoleon III Lands with French Army at Genoa-Allies Join Forces-They Win Battle of Montebello-Garibaldi Outwits Urban and Seizes Lake Como-Allies Win Battles of Palestro and Magenta-They Enter Milan-Death of Metternich-Francis Joseph Takes Command of Austrian Army -Allies Win Battle of Solferino-Armistice of Villafranca-Napo- leon III Cheats Italy of Her Spoils-Cavour Resigns-Mazzini and Garibaldi Plan Italian Republic-Victor Emmanuel Dissuades Gari- baldi-Napoleon III Plans to Depose Pope-Pius IX Appeals to Powers-Death of Humboldt-British Propose to Ratify Peace at Pekin--Chinese Demur-British Make "Demonstration"-They are Repulsed by Taku Forts-China Makes Treaty with United States at Tien-tsin-Kansas Adopts Anti-Slavery Constitution-Oil Struck in Pennsylvania-McQuiston Patents Corn Cultivator-Debut of Patti-Deaths of Rufus Choate and Washington Irving-Helper's Book-, "The Impending Crisis," Creates Anti-Slavery Fight in Con- gress-John Brown, the Slave Liberator, Raises Insurrection at Harper's Ferry-He is Captured and Hanged-Death of Macaulayv- Charles Darwin Promulgates Theory of Evolution in His "Origin of Species"-Zuloaga Resigns Presidency of Mexico-Miramon Suc- ceeds Him as Clerical Candidate United States Recognizes and Sub- sidizes the Liberal Aspirant, Juarez, in Return for Concessions- He Becomes President. T his New Year's reception to the foreign diplomats Napoleon III addressed the Austrian Ambassador 11 s in words suggestive of approaching conflict. A few weeks later a marriage contract was signed between Prince Jerome Napoleon and Princess Clotilde of Savoy. A formal treaty of offensive alliance was concluded between France and Piedmont. At the opening of the Parliament of Turin, Vic- tor Emmanuel declared in menacing words that he could no longer be insensible to the cry of suffering that arose from the Italians of northern Italy. The imminence of war pro- duced a violent counter-effect. A financial panic in Paris created havoc among the friends of Napoleon III at the 822 FRANCE DECLARES WAR ON AUSTRIA Bourse. The Emperor's plans for industrial and architec- tural projects in Paris and the provinces suffered a setback. He was made irresolute and lent a willing ear to England's proffers of mediation. Lord Cowley, the British Ambassador at Paris, went to Vienna with proposals for an amicable set- tlement in Italian affairs. Napoleon III undertook to with- draw his French troops from Rome, if Austria would abandon its protectorate over Modena and Parma. Cavour's ardent hopes appeared dashed to the ground. Negotiations at Vienna were well under way when Czar Alexander, encour- aged by the French Ambassador at St. Petersburg, proposed the settlement of Italian affairs by a conference of the Pow- ers. To this Austria agreed, but demanded as a preliminary measure that Sardinia should disarm. Cavour hastened to Paris to prevent Napoleon III from acquiescing in Austria's demands. The French Emperor was made to feel that it might not be safe to provoke his confidant of Plombibres too far. King Victor Emmanuel boldly declined to disarm alone. Great Britain at this crisis proposed a mutual dis- armament. Napoleon III telegraphed to Cavour bidding him consent. Cavour, who saw himself at the culmination of all his intrigues, was so upset when this telegram came that his secretary feared that he would commit suicide. In bitterness of heart he telegraphed Sardinia's consent. Count Buol von Schauenstein at this turn of affairs played into the hands of his opponents. He declined the British proposal for a mutual disarmament. The Austrian Cabinet issued another ultimatum. Without qualification and under threat of war within three days, it demanded that Sardinia should disarm at once. Cavour's time had come. He had onlv to point to his acceptance of England's peaceful proposal, to throw upon Austria the odium of flagrantly breaking the peace of Europe. Cavour's caustic reply was taken bv AuIs- tria as a call to arms. On April 29 the Austrian troops 823 1859 BLUNDERS OF GENERAL GIULAY crossed the Ticino. A French declaration of war against Austria promptly followed. Francis Giulay, Count of Naros-Meneta, was made Com- mander-in-Chief of the Austrian army. This soldier, whose services in the past had been largely confined to the Ministry of War, had reached his sixty-first year. His military ad- ministration of Lombardy had made him hated throughout Italy. Under him served Generals Benedek, Zobel, and Urban-three able commanders who had distinguished them- selves in the campaigns of 1848-49. Giulay's management of the early campaign in Italy afforded a striking illustration of his incapacity. For several months Austria had been re- enforcing her troops in northern Italy. She had chosen her own time for making war. The mountain ranges of the Alps stood between her army and that of France. The Italian troops gathered in Piedmont were despised by the Austrians. It seemed inevitable that Turin must fall before the French troops could take the Austrians from the rear. With Turin as a strong military centre, the Austrians could strike with ease in any direction. Instead of marching on Turin, or ad- vancing at least against the Italians and French in turn, Giu- lay lingered in the rich region of the Po. General Zaldini, an Italian soldier of the Napoleonic school, threw his division of 20,000 men along the banks of the Dora Baltea, so as to guard the approaches to Turin and the pass of Mont Cenis. The Italian main column, under command of Victor Em- manuel, was posted on the right bank of the Po, between Valenza and Casale, with the stronghold of Alessandria for his base. While the Austrians, 100,000 strong, lay inactive, French detachments crossed MNont Cenis, while another ex- pedition, under the personal command of Emperor Napoleon, landed at Genoa on May 12. On the news of the landing of the French in Genoa, central Italy rose. The Austrian re- gents and petty sovereigns were driven from their thrones. 824 1859 BATTLE OF MONTEBELLO Cavour's commissioners took charge. With the Piedmontese holding their positions in the front, and Garibaldi's volun- teers already skirmishing at Como, the French marched northward in five army corps, led by Canrobert, MacMahon, D':[illiers, Niel, and Prince Napoleon (Joseph Charles Paul, son of Jerome Bonaparte). They crossed the Po, and reached Vercelli before the Austrians discovered their ma- ncuvres. Then Giulav withdrew his right wing over the Po lest he should be outflanked. The Italians pressed so impetuously that they exposed Turin to attack. Giulay was not equal to the emergency. In the belief that his left wing was about to be attacked, he drew in his forces on Pavia and Piacenza. The allies effected their junction without hin- drance. When they failed to cross the Po, Giulay ordered a reconnoissance in force. Count Stadion, with 12,000 foot, six squadrons of cavalry, and 20 field-guns, crossed the Po on May 20, and attacked the Italian position. The Hun- garian hussars drove back the Piedmontese lancers. General Sonnaz called for help from the French corps of Marshal d'Hilliers. The Austrians had already captured the hamlet of Genestrello, near the banks of the Po, when a railroad train brought General Forey with five French battalions and two guns. The French tirailleurs drove the Austrians out of Genestrello. They fell back on the village of Montebello on the Po, and held their own until nightfall in the church- yard. At last General Forey himself led the charge on the church. Stadion ordered a general retreat, and succeeded in throwing his troops across the river under cover of night. The moral effect of this first victory was great throughout Italy. On the following day Garibaldi with his 7,000 volunteers advanced into Lombardy to turn the Austrian right flank. A flying column under General Urban sent against Garibaldi found him intrenched at Varese. The first attack of the 825 1859 BATTLE OF PALESTRO Austrians was repulsed. During the night Garibaldi slipped away. The pursuing Austrians believed he had taken refuge in Switzerland, when suddenly he appeared at the other end of the Austrian line, and seized all the shipping at Como. Steaming up and down the banks of the lake, Garibaldi in- cited the country people to revolt. The Austrians tried to drive him out of Como, but found his position too strong for such an attack. Napoleon III would not let his troops co- operate with Garibaldi's irregular followers, but that leader held his own without them, and kept Urban's corps from the French. Meanwhile the Piedmontese had crossed the Sesia and de- feated the Austrians on May 30, at Palestro. With the Aus- trians occupied here, the French crossed further north and advanced eastward on the Ticino. To stop further junction of the allies the Austrians made a determined attempt to recapture Palestro. Zobel's corps nearly succeeded in crush- ing the Piedmontese brigade led by Victor EThmaminel. Just as they had worked around to the rear, Canrobert's vanguard of 2,600 appeared on the scene. The Austrian batteries that were to cut off the Italian retreat swung around on the French. To reach the guns, the Zouaves had to cross the canal. Their first platoons were mowed down with grape and canister. The others got across, and, storming up the banks of the canal, captured the batteries. At the sight of his allies, Victor Emmanuel ordered a last charge. Assailed from two sides, the Austrian troops tried to fall back over a single bridge across the Brida. Amid indescribable con- fusion the Zouaves captured the bridge. Nearly 1,000 Aus- trians surrendered. The remnants of Zobel's column fell back on Robbio. Their losses aggregated some 4,000 men, while the allies had lost 2,400. During the heat of the fight the French, by a rapid march on the left flank, moved from the Po to the Sesia. On June 1 1859 BATTLE OF MAGENTA the French Emperor established his headquarters at Novara. In a series of forced marches the French advanced on Milan. By June 3 AMacMahon had already crossed the Ticino and captured Turbigo. Giulay's army lay in a great semicircle on the north banks of the Ticino, with the right wing guard- ing the approach to Milan at Magenta and the left at Abbia Grassa. The Austrian line was so far extended that great difficulties were experienced in massing the troops at any point. The allied troops, controlling the railroad lines as they did, were able to cover the ground with great rapidity. At the village of Robechetto a regiment of Algerian Turcos made its first appearance on a European battlefield. Under the eyes of Emperor Napoleon the French vanguard drove the Austrians old of Robechetto. Giulav saw that he had been outflanked. To stop the allies' advance on Milan, he drew in his troops over the Ticino. At Magenta and Buffa- lora the Austrian commanders received orders to break down the bridges, and make a stand until the army corps stationed at Pavia could march to their assistance. Some idea of the Austrian transport service may be gathered from the fact that half a day was lost in bringing up the powder casks with which to blow up the bridges. Before the bridges could be destroyed, the French Emperor with his vanguard arrived at the bridge of Buffalora. Further advance there was postponed until a pontoon bridge at San Martino should be strung across the Nebbiolo, and tidings should be re- ceived from MacMahon, who was marching on two roads toward Magenta. At last an aide-de-camp brought the news that MacMahon expected to reach Magenta by three in the afternoon. The Algerian troops under General Lefebvre were ordered to storm Buffalora. Reenforeed by fresh regi- ments, the Austrians held their ground so vigorously that the situation of the French vanguard became critical. Count- ing on MacMahon's support, Napoleon now sent his guards 827 1859 ALLIES ENTER MILAIN to seize the bridges of Magenta. Three times in succession the guards succeeded in driving the Austrians back; but the Austrians, led by General Reischach, who was shot through the leg, returned to the attack, and all but annihilated the guard. It was long after three o'clock, yet MfacMahon did not appear. The Austrians turned the French Emperor's right flank, and it appeared as if defeat was certain. At this moment came the thunder of the guns of MAac-Aahon, who had effected his junction with Niel and General Canrobert. The important positions of AMarcello and Buffalora were stormed by the French. A combined assault was made on Magenta. In the face of desperate odds, the Austrians held their ground in the railroad station and freight yard at Magenta. At length, long after dark, MAac-Iahon's troops stormed this last point, and drove the Austrians back on Carpenzoto and Re- becco. Napoleon III raised Mfac3Iahon to the rank of Mar, shal, and made him Duke of Magenta. Empress Eugenie named her favorite color after the battle, and that peculiar shade of red became the fashion among the ladies of Paris. Giulay hoped to renew the battle on the morrow, but the reenforcement of the French position by the Italians and the non-arrival of the Austrian reserves from Pavia made another contest hopeless. After the manner of his great pro- totype, Napoleon III minimized his losses. Only 5,000 casualties -were conceded. The Austrian losses were 12,000 men and 281 officers. More far-reaching than this loss in men was the loss of military prestige and the strategic con- sequences of the defeat. It was impossible for the Austrians to defend Milan. They retired on the Adda. On June 8 Emperor Napoleon and King Victor Emmanuel made their triumphal entry into Milan. In the midst of these new disasters to Austria, on June 11, a merciful death carried off the most conspicuous if not the greatest of her statesmen-Prince Metternich. 828 1859 BATTLE OF SOLFERINO Even in their retreat the Austrian soldiers in Italy were harassed by the victorious allies. Marshal d'Hilliers at- tacked Benedek's column in the rear at Melignano, and drove the Austrians out of the village after a bloody fight. Bene- dek hurried on to Lodi. On June 15 Garibaldi's men inter- cepted two Austrian battalions at Castelnebolo, and had to be driven off by another Austrian detachment. By this time Emperor Francis Joseph had arrived at the front. To the delight of his soldiers he relieved Giulay, and himself took the supreme command. All central Italy had arisen against the Austrians, and the united navies of France and Sardinia threatened Venice. Francis Joseph determined to concen- trate his troops behind the Mincio, with the great quadrilat- eral fortresses for a base. The Austrian forces were divided into two armies: the first, commanded by Count Wimpffen, lying at Mantua, while the second, under Count Schlik, stood at Custozza. The French headquarters were known to be on the banks of the Chiese. Francis Joseph gave orders to cross the Mincio over four bridges, and to attack the French posi- tion on June 25. The allies anticipated the movement. At two o'clock in the morning of June 24 they advanced in force, the Piedmontese corps on the left, those of Napoleon, MacMahon, and D'Hilliers in the centre, with Niel and Can- robert's corps on the right. At five in the morning their van- guard struck the advancing Austrians. Soon the engagement became general. The Piedmontese struck the right wing of the Austrians under Benedek. In the centre Francis Joseph, with two army corps, held Cav- arina, Cassiano, and Solferino. The Austrian left wing was composed of three corps, and made the whole line of battle nearly eight miles long. The country was hilly, intersected by streams and ravines. The highest point was a square church tower at Solferino known as Spia d'Italia. The vil- lage of Modelo was first captured by the French corps under 829 18S9 ALLIES CROSS THE MINCIO General Niel, which was attacked in turn by the Austrian cavalry. The fight grew so stubborn that two army corps on each side were drawn into the struggle. The village of Ro- becco was taken and retaken a number of times. While the battle remained indecisive at this point, Benedek's corps in the north drove the Piedmontese from the heights of San Martino, and held them in the face of repeated assaults. The true balance of the battle lay in the centre at Solferino. Nine times in succession Marshal d'Hilliers led his column up the slope of Solferino under the eyes of both Emperors, only to be driven back again with fearful loss. The Austrian batteries of smooth-bore cannon were helpless against the French artillery. Shortly after noon the French Emperor in person led his guards to the storm. The guards got nearly to the crest of the hill, but gave way under a murderous cross- fire of the Tyrolese sharpshooters. General Forey rallied the retreating troops, and led them back to the charge, only to be driven off again. At last the French field guns galloped up behind the charging columns of the infantry and supported the attack with their quick fire. The French Zoniaves and guards got over the trench at the crest, and, after a wild fight in the streets of Solferino, remained masters. As the Austrians were forced back into Cavarina, a heavy thunder- storm burst over the field of battle. At last Emperor Francis Joseph, who had exposed himself regardless of peril through- out the battle, ordered a general retreat. A final dashing charge of the Hungarian cavalry safeguarded the wheeling batteries of Austrian artillery. During the night the Aus- trians fell back across the Alincio to seek refuge behind the walls of the quadrilateral fortresses. Their losses were some 25,000 men, while the allies admitted a loss of 18,000. The allies crossed the Mfincio and advanced on the famous quadrilateral of fortresses. Prince Napoleon with 35,000 troops joined the main column. The Piedmontese 830 1859 TREATY OF VILLAFRANCA invested Peschiera. Other troops moved on Mantua and Verona. On the Austrian side new divisions hastened up from the north and east to the support of the still unbroken army. With impressions of the bloody field of Solferino still fresh, however, both sides shrank from another encounter. For Austria a decisive defeat might have serious consequences in rebellious Hungary. The French Emperor, on the other hand, feared that if hie advanced further all Germany might join Austria. Garibaldi's threatened invasion of the Tyrol invited German interference. A war upon the Rhine would then be added to the difficult campaign before the quadrilat- eral. Napoleon III sought an interview with Francis Joseph at Villafranca on July 9. An armistice was agreed on. Two days later the two sovereigns met. Francis Joseph ex- pressed his willingness to give up Lombardy, and to consent to the establishment of an Italian federation, including Vene- tia, to be presided over by the Pope. He insisted on retaining Mantua, and on the restoration of Modena and Tuscany to their deposed sovereigns. Cavour protested emphatically against the arrangement. Victor Emmanuel, who only ac- cepted the preliminaries of Villafranca with reservations, declined to enter any Italian league of which a province governed by Austria should form a part. The provisions of Villafranca, ratified late in the year at Zurich, were de- nounced throughout Italy. Napoleon III, hitherto hailed as a liberator, was reviled as a traitor to the Italian cause. Cavour resigned his portfolio. His last act of office was to despatch 10,000 muskets to Farini at Modena. Farini, instead of dis- banding his forces and returning to Turin, as bidden by, Ca- vour's successor, Rattazzi, renounced his Piedmontese citi- zenship and accepted the dictatorship of Modena. When the Duke of Modena threatened to return in force from Austria, the whole population was mobilized, and Parma joined forces with Modena. In the Romagna the provisional government 831 1859 1859 NAPOLEON III PLANS TO DEPOSE POPE maintained itself. Tuscany, too, declared for a national union and made common cause with her neighbors. As Cavour put it: "Before Villafranca the union of Italy was a possibility; after Villafranca it became a necessity." Mazzini proposed to establish the Italian union under the House of Savoy by overthrowing the Government of Vene- tia, central Italy, with Naples and Sicily, if Victor Emman- uel would undertake to head any armed resistance to foreign Powers that might arise from outside intervention. Victor Emmanuel knew that his forces were insufficient for such an enterprise and declined to countenance the project. Mazzini was confirmed in his distrust toward the House of Savoy. He persuaded Garibaldi to join him in his efforts to estab- lish a national Italian Republic. Garibaldi undertook to lead an expedition into the Romagna. At this very moment the French Government addressed a solemn warning to Vic- tor Emmanuel against the annexation of the Romagna. Gari- baldi's enterprise, if successful, was bound to prove fatal to the aspirations of the House of Savoy. In this crisis Victor Emmanuel himself invited Garibaldi to Turin, and implored him to postpone a project which would only result in disaster for the national cause of Italy. Garibaldi resigned his com- mand, and withdrew with expressions of cordiality for the King, but undisguised contempt for his advisers. The discovery of a secret treaty of alliance between the Papal Government and Austria at last overcame the reluc- tance of Napoleon III to offend the clerical party of France. He resolved to meet the national demand of Italy for the formation of a strong northern kingdom under Victor Em- manuel, and at the same time to garner in his promised har- vests by annexing Nice and Savoy to France. The French Emperor's intentions were foreshadowed about Christmas time by the publication in one of the official organs in Paris of an essay entitled "The Pope and the Congress." This 832 DEATH OF HUMBOLDT essay was evidently "inspired," if not actually dictated, by Napoleon himself. While discussing the Emperor's recent proposition of an International Congress on the affairs of Italy, the essay propounded the doctrine that the Pope's au- thority would be materially increased if his temporal powers were reduced to the narrowest limits. The lost revenue to the Holy See, it was proposed, might be made up by a yearly annuity granted to the Pope by the Catholic Powers of the world. The appearance of this essay created a sensation. Pope Pius IX protested that he would not join in the pro- posed Congress unless the doctrine to which such publicity had been given were disavowed by France. Napoleon III replied through his Ambassador at Rome that the Holy Father might do much worse than accept such proposed annuities, and that he might as well give up all claim to the Romagna, since this province was lost to him already. The Pope re- torted that he could not cede what Heaven had granted in perpetuity to the Church, and called upon the Powers to clear the Romagna of Piedmontese interlopers. The attitude as- sumed by the Pope afforded a good pretext for Napoleon to abandon the plan of a European Congress, which had already been discountenanced by the Governments of Great Britain and Russia. Friedrich Heinrich Alexander, Baron von Humboldt, the great traveler and naturalist, died on May 6, in his ninetieth year. On his return in 1804 from travels in Spanish Amer- ica Humboldt brought with him an immense mass of fresh knowledge in geography, climatology, geology, botany, zool- ogy, meteorology, and almost every other branch of natural science, as well as in ethnology and political statistics. After the completion of his great work on this subject, Von Humboldt was invited by Czar Nicholas to lead a scien- tific expedition into Siberia and Central Asia, the results of which were published in his "Central Asia." In 1845 833 1859 CHINESE REPULSE BRITISH appeared the first volume of Humboldt's famous "Cosmos," a vast and comprehensive survey of natural phenomena, in which Humboldt's idea of the unity of forces which control the various manifestations of nature found expression. Soon after the completion of this great work the aged explorer died. England's insistence on the promised exchange of the Chi- nese peace ratifications within the sacred precincts of Pekin precipitated another Chinese war. Frederick Bruce, who had been secretary to his brother, Lord Elgin, at Hong Kong, was appointed Great Britain's envoy for the exchange of ratifica- tions. His arrival at the mouth of the Peiho was preceded by a British squadron under Admiral Hope. The Admiral sent a notification to the Chinese in command of the Taku forts that the English envoy was coming. The notification was ill received. With the sanction of Bruce, Admiral Hope determined to make a demonstration. On June 25 the attack on the Taku forts began. Three English gunboats were sunk, and most of the other ships were badly damaged. An at- tempted land attack fared even worse. It was repulsed with severe loss to the British. More than 300 marines and blue- jackets were killed and wounded. The British fleet had to withdraw to Hong Kong for repairs, while Commissioner Bruce returned to Shanghai. The anti-foreign party in China triumphed. Prince San-Ko-Lin-Sin, the Manchu General who had checked the advance of the Taiping rebels, became master of the situation. Meanwhile England and France entered into negotiations for further hostile dem- onstrations. The negotiations dragged so long that the projected joint expedition had to be postponed until the fol- lowing year. An American treaty with China had been nego- tiated on June 13 at Tien-tsin. In the United States the vexed question of the status of Kansas at length reached a definite settlement. In January the Territorial Commission of Kansas had ordered a popular 834 1859 DEATH OF WASHINGTON IRVING vote on calling another Constitutional Convention. This was adopted in March by a popular majority of 3,881 votes. In midsummer the new State Convention met at Wyandotte. It framed an anti-slavery Constitution, while restricting the suf- frage to white male persons. In 1859 New Mexico was organized as a slave Territory. At the same time the Territory of Oregon was admitted as a State. Gold was now found in Oregon. Other important mineral discoveries were made at the same time. In August oil was struck at Titusville, Pennsylvania, at a depth of seventy-one feet. It was the first American oil-well. Thomas McQuiston, an Ohio farmer, patented in October a cultivator which straddled the rows of corn or other growing plants through the device of an elevated axle. This implement. by doubling the area of corn land and prolonging the period of cultivation of the plants, aided incalculably in the develop- ment of the Western prairies. Adelina Patti, the singer, who had recently made her d6but in Santiago de Cuba, appeared for the first tine at Castle Garden in New York and took Americans by storm. Rufus Choate, one of the greatest of American lawyers, died on July 13, at Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1841 he was elected to the Senate by his State to fill the vacancy left by Daniel Webster. His speeches on the Oregon question, the tariff, the annexation of Texas, and other issues gave him a national reputation as an orator and statesman. Upon Web- ster's reelection to the Senate in 1845, he returned to the practice of the law, in which he was engaged when he died. Washington Irving, the American essayist and romancer, died at the age of seventy-six, near Tarrytown. The spirit of American tales of folk-lore was infused by Irving in his whimsical "History of New York," or in such charming stories as "Rip Van Winkle" and "A Legend of Sleepy Hol- low." With Paulding he engaged in a serial publication 835 1859 "THE IMPENDING CRISIS" entitled "Salmagundi." It was filled with clever satire upon the foibles of the day, and was immediately successful. In Spain, while on diplomatic service, Irving wrote a "History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus," pub- lished in 1838. Here he also collected the material for his "Conquest of Granada," "The Alhambra," "Mohammed and his Successors," and the "Legends of the Conquest of Spain." His last and most elaborate work was his "Life of Washing- ton," published in five volumes. His death occurred soon after its completion. With Cooper, Poe, and Emerson, Wash- ington Irving succeeded in carrying the reputation of Ameri- can letters beyond the seas. Thus Thackeray happily toasted Irving as "The first Ambassador from the New World of letters to the Old." Hinton R. Helper had written a book, "The Impending Crisis in the South-How to Meet It." Representative Clark of Missouri proposed a resolution asserting "that no member of the House who has endorsed and recommended it is fit to be Speaker of this House." The book had been recom- mended in a circular signed by two-thirds of the Republican members of the preceding Congress. A fierce debate on this matter went on for several days, simultaneously with the discussion in the Senate on the John Brown affair. On the night of October 16 John Brown, the self-chosen liberator of Southern slaves, entered the State of Virginia at Harper's Ferry with a party of twenty-one armed follow- ers. His avowed object was to put an end to slavery by in- citing an insurrection of slaves in Virginia. Brown's party seized the United States Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and kidnapped several prominent residents to be held as hostages. NAot a negro rose at their summons. By the following morn- ing the alarm had been given and the militia of the surround- ing counties were summoned to arms. Under orders from Washington, Colonel Robert E. Lee, with a battalion of sol- 836 185 0 z ix 0 0 E- This page in the original text is blank. EXECUTION OF JOHN BROWN diers marched on Harper's Ferry. They reached there on the evening of the same day. Meanwhile Brown with his followers and hostages had barricaded themselves in a stone fire-engine house of the arsenal yard. They kept up a desul- tory fire on the militiamen that streamed into the town. During the night the marines surrounded the house. At daylight of the following morning Colonel Lee sent Lieu- tenant Stuart to demand the surrender of the insurgents, to be held subject to the orders of the President of the United States. Brown refused to capitulate, but asked for an opportunity to fight in the open. Finding that nothing but force would avail, Colonel Lee gave the order for the assault, and the soldiers stormed the arsenal yard, broke down the doors of the engine-house, and captured the inmates. The party had lost several men in killed and wounded. John Brown himself was severely wounded. Brown at first was turned over to the District- Attorney of Washington, to be tried in the United States Courts for his seizure of a Federal arsenal and armed re- sistance to the Government troops. The State authorities of Virginia demanded his surrender for his attempt to incite an insurrection of the slaves, a crime against the laws of Vir- ginia. The demand was complied with, and Brown with his followers was tried in the court of the county where the of- fence was committed. He was defended by able attorneys from the free States, who volunteered to aid him. As he frankly confessed that his object had been to incite insurrec- tion among the slaves, he was practically self-convicted. With six of his companions he was condemned to be hanged. The sentence was executed on December 2 at Charlestown, West Virginia. This event served greatly to intensify hos- tility between North and South. Brown was regarded as a martyr by those who sympathized with his aspirations, whereas, in the South, the raid was regarded with much show X1Xth Century-Vol. II-18 837 18S0 DEATH OF MACAULAY of reason as the work of a deliberate conspiracy of certain abolitionist leaders of Boston. Thomas Babington Macaulay, the distinguished historian, poet, orator, and politician, died of heart disease on Decem- ber 28. Macaulay's first contribution to the "Edinburgh Re- view" was the brilliant essay on Milton, which at once fixed public attention on the young writer. His subsequent con- tributions to the great Whig review were of the same high order. In 1830 he entered Parliament, and soon distin- guished himself as one of the ablest debaters on the Whig side. Lord Grey took him into his Administration. In 1832 he was appointed a member of the Supreme Council of India. While in India Macaulay drew up a code of laws for the Indian Empire which failed of acceptance. He returned to England in 1838, and wvas made Secretary of War. Shortly after he left that post in i842, he brought out his famous "L ays of Ancient Rome." Next came his "History of Eng- land from the Accession of James II." The "History," unfinished as it is, placed its author by the side of Hume, Lingard, and other leading English historians. Soon after the publication of the early parts of the "History," Macaulay was raised to the peerage under the title of Lord Macaulay of Rothley. The same vear witnessed the death of Henry Hallam, another eminent English historian, whose work "Europe During the Middle Ages," is the accepted classic on that subject. By far the most important book which appeared during the year was Charles Darwin's "Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Species in the Struggle for Life." This work effected a lasting revo- lution not only in natural science, but in the fundamental beliefs of men, and must be reckoned one of the greatest works produced during the century. 888 1859 UNITED STATES RECOGNIZES JUJAREZ In Mexico General Zoloaga, insufficiently supported as he was by the clerical party, found he could no longer main- tain himself, and resigned. His successor was General Mira- mon. The first measures of the new President were decrees rescinding the illegal forced loans of his predecessor, and promising indemnities to the injured interests of England and France. Miramon failed to obtain recognition from the United States. After the recall of Minister Forsyth, the American Legation was withdrawn from the City of Mexico. Forsyth's successor went to Vera Cruz, where he entered into negotiations with the victorious Juarez. On December 14 far-reaching concessions to the United States were granted by Juarez. Routes of trade were opened to American commerce over the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, over the Rio Grande from Mazatlan to the Pacific Ocean, and from Guaymas into Arizona. American troops were to be permitted to pursue Indians and guerrillas across the border of Mexico, with other rights of intervention. For these concessions Juarez obtained a financial subsidy of 8,000,000 from the United States. 1859 EVENTS OF 1860 devour is Recalled-lie Orders Plebiscite-Nice and Savoy Vote for Annexation to France-Other North Italian Provinces for Union with Sardinia-Garibaldi. Enraged, Quits Parliament-He Organ- izes His "Thousand"-With Connivance of Cavour He Seizes Steam- ships at Genoa and Lands the "Thousand" at Naples-He Beats Royal Troops at Calatafimi-He Enters Palermo-I-le Proclaims Himself Dictator of Sicily-He Wrins Battle of 'Milazzo-Ile Joins Admiral Persano at Naples-He Annexes Neapolitan Fleet-Death of Oehlenschleger. Danish Poet-Japanese Regent Assassinated by Conspiring Daimios-Mito-ko Plans a Revolution-Taipings Take Hangehow, Soochow, and Loochow-Europeans Repel Them from Shanghai-Chinese Refuse Ultimatum of Indemnity or War-Brit- ish Occupy Chusan-French Join Them at Gulf of Pechili-Allies Take Taku Forts-They Occupy Tien-tsin-British Storm Chan- chia-Wan-Chinese Capture European Civilians-Allies Win Battle of Palikao-They Loot Emperor's Summer Palace-Flight of Em- peror Affects Prestige of Manchu Dynasty-Release of European Prisoners-They Report Abuse-In Revenge British Burn Palace -Treaty of Tien-tsin Ratified at Pekin-Four-Cornered Contest for President of United States-Democrats Split on Question of Slavery in Territories-Constitutional Union Party Dodges Slavery Question-Republicans Declare for Free Soil of Territories-They Nominate Lincoln-Lincoln is Elected-South Carolina Secedes and Calls Convention of Southern States-Buchanan Decries Coercion of Seceding States-Congress at a Loss for Method of Compromise -Reciprocitv Treaty Between France and Great Britain-Bunsen and Kirchhoff Perfect Spectroscope, and Institute Spectrum Analy- sis-Garibaldi Takes Capua-Victor Emmanuel Enters Naples- Naples and Sicily Unite with Northern Italy-Victory of San Miguelito Makes Juarez President of Mexico-Southerners in Cabi- net Resign-Secessionists Send Commissioners to Washington- Buchanan Refuses to Treat with Them-South Carolina Troops Seize Federal Forts and Arsenals. A T the opening of the Corps Legislatif in France, the change of Napoleon's foreign policy was indicated vi by the resignation of Count Valevski as Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was succeeded by Thouvenel, an advo- cate of Italian union. Within a fortnight Cavour was re- called to power at Turin. The time had come for Cavour to fulfil the pledges of Plombieres. True, the Austrians still held Venice; but Napoleon's troops lay at Milan, and their presence alone gave him the upper hand in his dealings with Cavour. In vain did the Italian statesman try to squirm out of this hateful predicament by inviting England's good 840 FRANCE ANNEXES NICE AND SAVOY offices toward the withdrawal of French and Austrian troops from Italy. The propositions made by the English Foreign Office led the Austrian Cabinet to acknowledge that the im- perial troops would not be mobilized in behalf of the de- posed sovereigns of Tuscany and Modena. The French Em- peror was quick to construe this as an admission that the stipulations of Villafranca were no longer enforced. To the implied annexation of Parma, Modena, and the Romagna by Victor Emmanuel, he stated France could not give her con- sent unless her military frontier, threatened by the formation of so strong a State on her borders, were rectified by the acquisition of Nice and Savoy. Cavour found a way out of his dilemma by resorting to the Napoleonic expedient of a so-called plebiscite. He gave orders that a popular vote on these questions should at once be taken in Savoy and Nice, as well as in the States of Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and the Romagna. The elections came off early in March. The de- sired results were obtained. The inhabitants of Nice and Savoy, by an apparently overwhelming vote, declared for union with France. Those of the other north Italian States declared with equal unanimity their desire for union with Piedmont and Sardinia. Armed with this popular fiat, Ca- vour checked Napoleon's plan for the recognition of a sepa- rate government in Tuscany. France had to content herself with the easy acquisition of NSice and Savoy. The annexation of these choicest provinces of Italy by France was viewed with keen displeasure by the other Powers of Europe. In Italy itself a storm of indignation burst. For Victor Em- manuel the cession of Savoy meant a surrender of the home of his race. For Garibaldi it meant the sale of his own birthplace. In the first Parliament of United Northern Italy, convoked in April, Cavour had to face the storm. Garibaldi, unseated as a Deputy from Nice, publicly quitted the Parliament with words of bitter scorn. Cavour replied 841 1860 GARIBALDI'S "THOUSAND" to the imprecations that were hurled at him with a masterly speech, justifying his policy and exacting for it the ratifica- tion of the Parliament. Garibaldi's continued reproaches he bore in silence. Not until he was on the point of death did Cavour make answer to Garibaldi's burning words: "The act that made this gulf between us was the most painful duty of my life. By what I felt myself I could judge what Garibaldi must have felt. If he refused to forgive me I can not reproach him." Garibaldi's ardent spirit found new fields to conquer in the south. King Bomba had died a few days after the battle of Magenta. Sicily was ripe for revolution. Rumors spread through that island that Garibaldi might be expected there. In the hope of hastening his expedition an ill-prepared in- surrection was tried at Palermo early in April. Garibaldi was then gathering his famous "Thousand" at Genoa. The fiasco of Palermo was so discouraging that it was decided to postpone the project of invasion as hopeless for the present. Cavour now determined to act. Victor Emmanuel wrote to Francis II, the new King of the Sicilies, that unless he changed his anti-Italian policy the Piedmontese Government would be driven to side against him. The menace was wasted. Cavour resolved to let Garibaldi and his revolutionary forces loose on Naples. On the night of ilay 5 Garibaldi with his followers seized two steamships lying at Genoa and put to sea. The seizure was a fiction encouraged by the Piedmon- tese Government. Ostensible orders were issued to the Sar- dinian Admiral Persano to seize Garibaldi's ships off Cag- liari in Sardinian waters. Garibaldi -was thoughtful enough to avoid the Sardinian squadron, and having shipped arms and munitions on the Tuscany coast, made for Marsala in Sicily. Under the guns of a Neapolitan war steamer, on May 11, Garibaldi's "Thousand" landed at that place. Ar- rayed in the red flannel shirt affected by Garibaldi, the 842 1860 GARIBALDI TAKES SICILY "Thousand" marched eastward through Sicily, gathering ad- herents all along the way. After the third day's march, at Calatafimi they encountered Neapolitan troops and put them to rout. This victory, achieved over superior numbers, had a great moral effect. Tidings reached Garibaldi that Pa- lermo was ready to rise again. By a piece of strategy Gari- baldi lured the Neapolitan garrison of Palermo into the hills, and then by forced marches threw himself into Palermo. On May 26 his followers fought their way into the city, and were joined enthusiastically by the inhabitants. For three days the gunners in the citadel and the Neapolitan warships in the harbor bombarded the city. Before the absent garrison had returned the commandant of the citadel signed articles of truce on board the "Hannibal." The citv was surrendered to the insurgents, and the remainder of the garrison withdrew to the outside forts. The Neapolitan Government weakly gave up Palermo for lost, and shipped the troops thence to Messina and Naples. Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel, and levied taxes. Volunteers from all parts of Italy joined his standard in great numbers. On July 20 Garibaldi's forces defeated the Neapolitans by land and by sea at Milazzo on the north coast. Cavour now revoked his affected disapproval of the Sicilian revolution. While the Piedmontese Ambassador was still at Naples, Depretis, a Piedmontese pro-dictator, was sent to Palermo to help disentangle Garibaldi from the mesh of the civil maladministration into which he had been drawn. After the evacuation of Mlessina, Cavour cast aside all re- straint. Admiral Persano was ordered with his ships to cover Garibaldi's passage to the mainland, and proceeded to Naples to take charge of the Neapolitan fleet in the name of Victor Emmanuel. On August 3 Persano sailed into Naples, and invited the Neapolitan sailors to come under the flag of united Italy. 843 1860 DEATH OF OEHLENSCHLEGER Garibaldi crossed over from Sicilv. His march to Na- ples was a triumphal procession. On September 6, having proclaimed his reluctance to provoke bloodshed, King Fran- cis, accompanied by his Queen, and the Ambassadors of Spain, Prussia, and Austria, sailed out of Naples on a packet boat. Garibaldi came by railroad on the following morning, and drove openly into the city amid tumultuous enthusiasm. He was recognized as Dictator by Persano and Villa Marina. His first act was to declare the Neapolitan ships of war as a part of King Victor Emmanuel's fleet under Admiral Per- sano's flag. The Neapolitan garrison, nearly 8,000 strong, was permitted to retire to Capua. Adam Gotlob Oehlenschleger, the great romantic poet of modern Denmark, died this year, aged seventy-one. He it was who brought about the modern romantic movement in Danish letters, and who revived the mythology of ancient Scandinavia. Oehlenschleger's death left a gap in Danish letters. Among those worthy to be accounted his successors was Steen Steensen Blicker, the Jutland poet, who had made his start with a collection of short stories published in 1824. A less prominent position in Danish letters was held by Nicbolai Frederick Severin Gruntwig. He may be said to have laid the cornerstone of the first Danish Hojskole. Other contemporaries were Bernhard Severin Ingemann, the author of "Valdemar the Victorious" and "Prince Otto of Denmark," published in the forties. Christian Winter wrote his pastoral poems. Of the playwrights, the greatest success was won by Henrik Hertz with his drama "Svend Dyrings Hus," which since its first appearance, in 1837, continued to hold a prominent place on the Danish stage. Shortly before this Hans Christian Andersen had achieved instant popularity by his charming collection of original fairy tales, translations of which were issued in almost all the countries of the world. About the same time Fred 844 1860 "TILE CRIMSON SNOW"1 erick Paldan Miller wrote his great satiric epic "Adamn Homo." On March 3 the Japanese "Festival of Dolls," a great levee of the Shogun's court, was held at Yeddo. As cus- tomary, all the great daimios on duty appeared with their retinues. Four of the highest daimios did not appear, having been degraded by the Regent. They were Mito-ko, Owarri, Tosa, and Echizen. The Regent came in all the plenitude of his powers, as the real ruler of Japan. As he set out in his palanquin toward the Sakurada Gate, surrounded by his white-robed retainers, his train was suddenly attacked by a band of cutthroats. The bearers of the palanquin were en- gaged in fierce fight with the swordsmen and had to put down their burden. A shot into the palanquin wounded the Re- gent. As lie came cut he was struck down by a swordsman and his head was cut off. During the encounter snow was falling, and the event, from this circumstance, has received the Japanese name of "Crimson Snow." From the official investigation of the affair it appeared that the Regent's men must have been in league with the assassins. The Regent's head was raised on a pole in the city of Mito with an inscrip- tion, "Let us hoist the silken standard of Japan and fight the battles of the Emperor." When the Government gave orders to arrest the suspected followers of Mito-ko, that chieftain replied tauntingly: "How can I, a poor daimio, arrest these men, when you, the Shogun, are unable to do so If you wish to seize my men, send your officers and let them try it." The revolution was at hand. A short while after the Re- gent's assassination his son-in-law was murdered while in bed, and his head was sent to Mito. The Shogun's castle at Yeddo was barricaded. The gates of the city were closed at night and guarded in daytime. The im- perial Ministers went about surrounded by large escorts. The agitation against foreigners grew in force. M ito-ko tray- 845 1860 TAIPING VICTORIES eled over the Empire in disguise to study the feelings of the people. Still he failed to come forward to carry out his own policy. In his weakness the Emperor issued an order that the higher daimios were to visit Yeddo only once in seven years. This order was not applied to those daimios who bad the Emperor's ear in the interest of the Shogun. In China the Taipings carried on a remarkable campaign. Chung Wang began by capturing Hangehow on March 19, but the Tatar portion of the city held out until it was relieved by Chang Kwaliang. The Taiping leader hastened from Hangehow to Nanking, the forces of which were relieved, and attacked the imperial lines on May 3, causing the loss of 5,000 men and the raising of the siege. He committed, how- ever, the fatal mistake of forbidding his lieutenant, Chung Wang, to reenter the city. Chung Wang thereupon deter- mined to act for himself. He obtained possession of the im- portant city of Soochow on the Grand Canal, and not far distant from Shanghai. In the engagement which effected this, Chang Kwaliang lost his life. After three more bat- tles Chung Wang reached Loochow, which place the imperif.1- ists hastily abandoned. At this critical moment, in May, the Viceroy of Two Kiang implored the aid of the English and French, who were about to march on Pekin. His advice was prudent, but it proved little satisfactory to the Emperor, who summoned him to Pekin, where he was executed. Chung Wang, not satisfied with Soochow alone, wished to gain pos- session of Shanghai, but the Europeans had determined to defend that city, and had raised funds to provide a contin- gent. They made an attack on Sunkiang, a walled town twenty miles distant, which they gained. They then ad- vaneed to Tsingpu, and on August 2 were repulsed with heavy loss. Chung Wang, after seven days of bombardment, appeared and surprised their force, which he drove away. He advanced on Shanghai, from which, after five days' fight- 846 1860 ALLIED EXPEDITION AGAINST CHINA 1 ing, he was compelled to retreat He then went, in response to an urgent call, to assist Tien Wang at Nanking, and thence hastened back to Loochow to direct active operations. He held his own against his more numerous adversaries. Meanwhile the threatened French-English expedition against China had got under way. Pending its arrival, the English envoy, Bruce, at Shanghai, presented an ultimatum, with thirty days' grace, demawding an immediate apology, the payment of an indemnity of 12,000,000 to both England and France, and a ratification at Pekin of the treaty of Tien- tsin. On behalf of China Minister Pang Wanching categori- cally refused all these requests. -Nothing remained to the Europeans but all appeal to arms. From India an additional force of 10,000 men, infantry, cavalry, and artillery, was sent to Hong Kong under Sir Hope Grant, a hero of the Indian mutiny and first war with China. Admiral Hope's squadron was strongly reenforced. The French Government sent a force of 7,500 under General Montauban, to cooperate with the English forces on the Peiho. As soon as Sir Hope Grant reached Hong Kong, in March, he asked for reenforcements. The Indian Govern- ment immediately despatched four native regiments under Sir John Michael and Sir Robert Napier. Within a month the island of Chusan was occupied by an English expedition of 2,000 without opposition. Owing to the late arrival of the French, the united expedition did not reach the Gulf of Pe- chili until July. Pehtang was taken without the loss of one man. An intrenched Chinese camp four miles beyond Peh- tang was outflanked by two divisions under Sir Robert Napier and Colonel Wolseley, and the towns of Sinho and Tangau in the rear of the Taku forts were occupied. The Chinese Governor of Pechili now requested a cessation of hostilities, but his proposals were ignored. It was decided to seize the Taku forts before entering into any negotiation. August 21 847 1860 TREATY OF TIEN-TSIN the allied forces opened fire on the forts, and made a simul- taneous attack on the two sides. The Chinese fought their obsolete guns with extraordinary courage. When their prin- cipal magazine was blown up they stood to their position. Out of a garrison of 500 men, it was computed that 100 escaped. The English losses were more than 200 in killed and wounded. The French losses were proportionate. The allies' summons to surrender was scouted by the Chinese. Yet the Chinese defences were ludicrously weak, since the forts were supposed to front toward the sea. On the follow- ing day all the forts were rushed by the French and English attacking forces, and several thousand Chinese prisoners were taken. The spoil included more than 600 guns. Ad- miral Hope with his fleet now stood into the bay, and anchored under the walls of the captured forts. The way to Tien-tsin was open now by land and by water. The British gunboats stood up the river, while the land forces marched straight for Tien-tsin without encountering any opposition. All the Chinese troops were withdrawn from Tien-tsin after an announcement by the Governor that Minis- ter Kwaliang was on his way to the city to negotiate for peace. The Commissioners of the allies demanded, first, an apology for the first Chinese attack at Peiho; secondly, the payment of an indemnity, including the costs of the war; and, thirdly, the ratification of the treaty of Tien-tsin in the presence of the Chinese Emperor at Pekin. To all of these demands Kwaliang assented; but when Lord Elgin made an additional demand that the British forces should be permitted to penetrate to the town of Tongehow, only twelve miles distant from Pekin, the Chinese became desperate and refused to yield. With reenforcements from Mongolia and Manchuria, Prince San-Ko-Lin-Sin threw himself in front of Pekin. A: British advance force of 1,500 men, under Sir Hope Grant, 848 1860 CAPTURE OF FOREIGN CIVILIANS accompanied by Lord Elgin, left Tien-tsin on September S, and marched to Iosiwu, half way to the capital. There they were reenforced by a French division. Prince Tsai, a nephew of the Chinese Emperor, on behalf of the Emperor, made new overtures for peace, but he was curtly informed that no negotiations would be entered into until Tongehow was taken. At Chanchia-Wan the allied forces came upon Prince San-Ko- Lin-Sin's army. Now the Commissioners of the allies were sent ahead with an escort of Sikh cavalry tP propose an ar- mistice. Before the Commissioners could rejoin their forces, hostilities had been started by a French officer, who shot a coolie in a dispute over a mule. He was torn to pieces by the infuriated Chinese. General Montauban ordered his French forces to advance. They wvere supported by the French artil- lery. This galled the M1anchu horsemen so much that. they charged to the very mouths of the guns, overriding one bat- tery. Probin's HIorse came to the rescue, and, in the sight of both armies, drove the Chinese cavalry down the slope. This overthrow of their most vaunted fighting men discouraged the Chinese foot-soldiers, and they gave way. The British In- dian troops stormed Chan-chia-Wan. The French were too exhausted to take a part in the last advance; but Sir Hope Grant with some of his fresh regiments passed on and cap- tured a large Chinese camp and several guns one mile beyond the town. The resistance encountered had been sufficient to make the British commander hesitate before advancing further. Urgent orders were sent to Sir Robert Napier, garrisoning Tien-tsin, to bring as many reserves as he could spare. Two days intervened before another advance was made by the allies. Meanwhile Parkes and his party of civilians had been cut off and captured. The Chinese collected new forces for the defence of the Palikao Bridge, crossing the Peiho west of Tongehow. 849 1860 BATTLE OF PALIKAO With British and French reenforcements the allies re- sumed hostilities with a cavalry charge on the Chinese posi- tion. The French stormed the bridge with its twenty-five guns by a dashing bayonet charge. It was there that General Montauban won his subsequent title of Comte de Palikao. Meanwhile the British flanked the Chinese position. Their success in this manceuvre, and the dispersion of the Chinese imperial guards by the French infantry, completed the dis- comfiture of the Chinese. Pekin now lay almost at the mercy of the allies. At this juncture Prince Kung, the Chinese Emperor's brother, arrived at the front and requested a temporary sus- pension of hostilities. On behalf of England Lord Elgin re- plied that there could be no negotiation until Parkes and his fellow captives were delivered in safety at the British head- quarters. Prince Kung gave assurances that Parkes and Loch were in safety at the Kaou Meaou Temple in Pekin, but would be retained as hostages pending the conclusion of an armistice. Lord Elgin at once requested Sir Hope Grant to resume his march. During the parleys, lasting nearly a week, more reserves had been brought up from Tien-tsin and the Sikh cavalry had reconnoitred to the very walls of Pekin. On their report that the walls were strong and in good condition, it was de- cided to concentrate the attack on the Tatar quarter of Pekin. In execution of this plan the allied forces marched around the great city to the northwest corner of the walls converging on the Emperor's summer palace, some four miles out of the city. Emperor Hsien-Feng fled from his palace, and sought shelter at Jehol, the hunting residence of the Emperors be- yond the great Chinese wall. The French and British sol- diers began a squabble over the rich loot in the palace, in the course of which some of the choicest Chinese art treasures were ruthlessly destroyed, while others were torn asunder 850 1860 ALLIES DICTATE PEACE AT PEKIN 6nd carried off by Christian soldiers ignorant of their value. By an agreement between the French and English com- manders-in-chief, it was finally decided to divide the rich loot of the summer palace in equal shares between the two armies. These disgraceful proceedings confirmed the Chinese impression that the self-styled representatives of Western civilization and Christianity were nothing but bar- barians. The flights of Emperor Hsien-Feng and the princes of the imperial house seriously affected the prestige of the Manchu dynasty. A famous Chinese satire, written by one of the officers of the imperial escort, exploited the humilia- tion of the ruler of the Celestial Empire. Prince Kung now yielded to Lord Elgin's demands. Parkes and his fellow prisoners were released, and the north- eastern gate of Pekin was thrown open to the allies. Later the Chinese released the remaining prisoners of war who had been captured at Tongehow nearly a month before. Some of them had fared badly. One of them, Lieutenant Ander- son, became delirious under the torments of his captors and died on the ninth day of his confinement. De Normann and a British trooper died shortly afterward from ill treatment. What fate befell Captain Barbazon and his French com- panion, l'AbW de Luc, was never learned, but it was generally believed that the Chinese put them to death immediately after the capture of the Bridge of Palikao. In retalia- tion of these atrocities, the British, heedless of French protests, set fire to the beautiful summer palace. In addition to this Lord Elgin exacted a special indemnity of 500,000 taels as compensation for the families of the men be- lieved to have been murdered. The palace of Prince Tsai in Pekin was appropriated as a temporary official residence of Lord Elgin and Baron Gros. The Imperial Hall of Cere- monies was selected as the place where the treaty of Tien-tsin should be ratified. The formal act of ratification was signed 851 1860 DIVISION OF DEMOCRATIC PARTY on October 24. Prince Kung, in the presence of the Manchu mandarins, affixed the Emperor's seal to the treaty, under a special imperial edict, forwarded from Jehol. This done, Lord Elgin transferred to his brother, Frederick Bruce, the charge of British interests in China as Resident Minister at Pekin, in company with a newly appointed Ambassador from France. The allied troops left Pekin on November 9, and the greater part of the expedition returned to India and Eu- rope just before the cold weather set in. In the absence of the Emperor, Prince Kung took charge of affairs in China. In North America, after the failure of the efforts to make Kansas a slave State, it had become plain that the South could not hope to keep its equality of representation in the Senate without reversing what appeared to be the settled popular opinion concerning the status of the Northern Ter- ritories. Resolutions to this general effect wvere moved by Jefferson Davis early in February, 1860, and were passed by the Senate. The House, however, would not pass them. This was the ultimatum presented to the Democratic Party, and, in fact, to the North, at the Democratic National Convention which assembled on April 23 at Charleston, South Carolina. The spokesman of the Cot- ton States at that convention was William L. Yancey of Alabama, whose impetuous oratory had given him a place among the extreme men of the South, comparable to Garrison and Wendell Phillips among the extreme anti-slavery men in the North. The platform committee voted 17 to 16 in favor of declaring that the Constitution allowed, and that Congress should aphold, the holding of slaves in any Territory. The minority report, while upholding the Fugitive Slave Act, de- ferred on tie constitutionality of slavery to the decisions of the Supreme Court. The minority report was adopted by a small majority of the Convention. Practically all the dele- gates from the Cotton States withdrew. The convention ad- 852 1860 REPUBLICANS NOMINATE LINCOLN journed to meet at Baltimore on June 18. There, Douglas was at last nominated. He went before the country practi- cally on the Dred Scott decision for a platform. Meanwhile the delegates who had withdrawn from the convention at Charleston met again at Richmond, whence they also ad- journed to Baltimore, and, joined there by other seceders, nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for President. B-eckinridge stood for the Southern view of slavery in the Territories as embodied in the majority report at Charleston. On May 19 a third faction, calling itself the "Constitutional Union Party," assembled in convention at Baltimore and nominated John Bell of Tennessee and Edward Everett of Massachusetts, declaring that they would have no other plat- form than "the Constitution, the Union of the States, and the enforcement of the laws." On May 16 the Republican Convention had met at Chi- cago. Of the slave States, only Delaware, Maryland, Vir- ginia, Kentucky, and Missouri were represented. David Wilmot of "Proviso" fame was temporary president and Ash- mun of Massachusetts permanent chairman. The resolutions declared for "The maintenance inviolate of the right of each State to order and control its own domestic institutions ac- cording to its own judgment exclusively," and condemned the attempt to enforce the extreme pretensions of a purely local interest (meaning the slave interest), through the interven- tion of Congress and the courts, by the Democratic Adminis- tration. They derided the new dogma that the Constitution of its own force carried slavery into the Territories, and denied the authority of Congress, of a Territorial Legislature, or of any individual to give leave of existence to slavery in any Territory in the United States. Seward was the leading can- didate on the first ballot. Cameron, Chase, and Bates also had respectable followings, but Abraham Lincoln of Illinois rap- idly forged ahead, and on the third ballot was nominated 853 law0 ELECTION OF LINCOLN with a total of 354 out of 466 votes. Hannibal Hamlin of Maine was nominated for Vice-President. A memorable political contest followed. Stephen A. Douglas made his last try for the Presidency with wonderful vigor and spirit. He canvassed the whole country, and great throngs were moved by his energetic oratory. Jefferson Davis and other Breckinridge orators had the courage to canvass Northern States. Before election day, however, it was clear to shrewd observers that the Republican party would carry the bulk of the Northern electoral vote. Meanwhile, south of Mason and Dixon's line the interest in the contest was even more intense than at the North. Be- sides the debate over the Presidential election, there was also serious discussion of the course which the South should take in the event of Lincoln's election. South Carolina had been ready to secede from the Union ten years before, and there had been considerable minorities in other Southern States in favor of secession at that time. In all the Cotton States that party was now very strong. The Alabama Legislature, early in 1860, had instructed Governor Moore to call a Con- vention in case a "black Republican" should be elected President in November. None of the four candidates obtained a majority of the popular vote. Lincoln got 1,866,352, Douglas 1,375,157, Breckinridge 845,763, and Bell 589,581. Lincoln got a majority of the Electoral College, 180 out of 303 electoral votes. Most of the Southern States went for Breckinridge, who was second in the Electoral College. Douglas's support was hopelessly scattered throughout the two sections. Bell carried but three States, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The great excitement over the election gradually subsided in the North, while in the South it rose to fever heat. The South Carolina Legislature at once made provision for a Constitutional Convention, and similar action was 854 1860 SOUTH CAROLINA SECEDES taken in others of the Cotton States. Throughout the South three distinct parties contended on the secession question. One party advocated immediate secession of each State with- out waiting for any other. The second party advocated coop- eration among the States, to the end that if one seceded all might secede together. The third party opposed secession altogether. For the time being, the immediate Secessionists had their way in the Cotton States, while in Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and other States the Cooperationists and Union men were in the ascendant. The South Carolina Convention passed its ordinance of secession on December 20, and at the same time invited the other Southern States to meet in Convention at Montgomery, Alabama, early next year. As it became clear that the South was in terrible earnest, a strong feeling for compromise developed in the North and in the border States. Abraham Lincoln, while conceding nothing to the theory or policy of secession, took occasion, in a letter to Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, to make it plain that he had no purpose to interfere with slavery in any State where it already existed. December 3 Congress convened at Washington. Presi- dent Buchanan, in his last annual message, denied the right of a State to secede, but could not find that the Constitution gave Congress any power to "coerce into submission a State which is attempting to withdraw or has actually withdrawn" from the Union. "The fact is," he said, "that our Union rests upon public opinion, and can never be cemented by the blood of its citizens shed in civil war." Attorney-General Black sustained the President in this view. A committee appointed by the House declared that "any reasonable, proper, and constitutional remedies and effectual guaranties of their political rights and interests should be promptly and cheer- fully given" to the dissatisfied States. A Senate committee, 855 1860 FRENCH-BRITISH RECIPROCITY TREATY appointed December 18 to devise compromise measures for a restoration of peace, soon reported that it was "not able to agree upon any general plan of compromise." And so, while Congress debated, and Buchanan hesi- tated, and the North looked on helpless, the people of the lower South made ready to employ that remedy for their grievances which, at various times and in various dissatisfied corners of the Union, had been suggested or threatened but never tried. While the United States was drifting into what appeared a ruinous war, England advanced her commercial prosperity by a master-stroke. With Gladstone acting as the chief finance minister of the country, Richard Cobden was engaged as a plenipotentiary of the British Government in negotiating a commercial treaty with France based on free trade. It was calculated to give enormous impulse to the trade between the two countries. The treaty was signed on January 23, and soon after passed Parliament, with the sole exception of the proposed reduction of the duty on paper, which was thrown out by the Lords. Scientifically, the year was notable for the work of Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff, two German chemists, who perfected the spectroscope. They established the science of spectrum analysis, and showed that infinitesimal quantities of metals could be readily detected by means of the spectro- scope in an incandescent mass. Their researches have had an incalculable influence on stellar chemistry. It was at this time that the last volume of Ruskin's "'Modern Painters" was published. The first volume of this brilliant book had appeared in 1843, the outgrowth of an early pamphlet written by Ruskin in defence of Turner, which excited great attention in England at the time. As was said in "Hora Subsessive," Thackeray's organ: "There is one man among us who has done more to breathe the breath 856 1860 PATRIOTS TAKE NAPLES of life into the literature and the philosophy of art, who has encouraged it ten thousand times more effectually than all our art unions, and that is the author of 'Modern Painters.'" In Italy the Neapolitan troops, emboldened by a success at Cajazzo, had assumed the offensive in October. Garibaldi drove them back to Cajazzo. Meanwhile King Victor Em- manuel, crossing the Apennines, marched his troops to the rear of the Neapolitan army. The Bourbon commander avoided both by moving northward toward Garigliano. It was determined that Garibaldi with his followers should at- tend to the Neapolitan garrison at Capua, while Victor Em- manuel's armay pursued the Neapolitans in the open. The questions at issue between Cavour' and Garibaldi -were left to the new Parliament of Southern Italy. By an overwhelm- ing majority, toward the close of October, the delegates voted for the immediate union of Naples and Sicily with Northern Italy. Capua surrendered in the first days of November, and Victor Emmanuel made his entry into Naples. It was the crowning achievement of Garibaldi's career. That popil- lar leader now requested of the King the Lientenancy of Southern Italy, with supreme military powers for the space of a year. Victor Emmanuel, under the influence of Cavour, replied very simply: "It is impossible." Declining any other honor or reward, Garibaldi returned to Caprera. As he took leave of his volunteers he said: "The next time, we march on Rome and on Venice." Apart from this great goal, all that remained to accomplish the union of Italy was the reduc- tion of Gaeta and the citadel of Messina, the last refuges of Bourbon rule in Southern Italy. In Mexico, toward the close of the year, the liberal forces, supported largely by the natives, advanced upon the capital. In the battle of San Miguelito, on December 22, Miramon's forces were routed. Ortaga, the victorious general, sum- moned Juarez to come to the capital without delay to restor 857 1860 1860 SOUTH CAROLINA TAKES FEDERAL FORTS the liberal constitution. Miramon fled the country. Before embarking he helped himself to the funds of the British Con- sulate in Mexico, obtaining some 600,000 piastres. In the United States, in December, two Southern mem- bers of the Cabinet resigned. They were Cobb of Georgia and Floyd of Virginia, by whose connivance, it was asserted, Federal arsenals had fallen into the hands of the Southerners. Commissioners representing South Carolina appeared at Washington as the envoys of a separate republic, and Gov- ernor Pickens made a formal request that Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, be delivered to the authorities of the State. After some hesitation, Buchanan refused to receive the Commissioners, and let them know that Fort Sumter would not be abandoned. It was then that Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote "Brother Jonathan's Lament," addressed to South Carolina: "She has gone-she has left us in passion and pride- Our stormy-browed sister, so long at our side! She has torn her own star from our firmament's glow, And turned on her brother the face of a foe! . . ." When this was written, Forts Pinckney and Moultrie had already been seized by the South Carolina troops. On De- cember 31 possession was taken of the Federal arsenal at Charleston, the flag of the United States was hauled down, and in its place was hoisted the palmetto flag of South Carolina. 858

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